34
RICHARD J. SMITH
1 Throughout the latter half of the nineteenth century, informed Western observers repeatedly pointed to the lack of a modern, Western-trained officer corps as the key deficiency of the Chinese army. See, for example, Mary Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism (New York, 1967), 201; Major A. E. J. Cavendish, "The Armed Strength of China,” Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, 42.244 (June, 1898), 720-722; NCH, July 6, 1880; Chinese Times, December 3, 1887; etc. For an interesting and informative discussion of officer education in the West, consult Correlli Barnett, "The Education of Military Elites," Journal of Contemporary History, 2.3 (July, 1967).
2 Cited in Chang Chung-li, The Chinese Gentry (Seattle, 1955), 174.
3 Helmutt Wilhelm, "Chinese Confucianism on the Eve of the Great Encounter," in Marius Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes Toward Modernization (Princeton, 1965), 288-289.
4 Etienne Zi, Pratique des examens militaires en Chine (Shanghai, 1896), 111-112. For other critiques of the traditional military examinations, see Chang Chung-li, 181, 187-190; William Ayers, Chang Chih-tung and Educational Reform in China (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), 178-182; Ichisada Miyazaki, China's Examination Hell (New York and Tokyo, 1976), chapter 8.
5 Richard J. Smith, "Chinese Military Institutions in the Mid-Nineteenth Century, 1850-1860," Journal of Asian History, 8.2 (1974), 128.
6 Hsieh Pao Chao, The Government of China, 1644-1911 (Baltimore, 1925), 311-312; Chang Chung-li, 187.
7 Cited in Chang Chung-li, 181.
8 Miyazaki, 106. See also Robert Marsh, The Mandarins, (New York, 1961), 149-151.
9 Smith, "Chinese Military Institutions," 135.
10 Wu Wei-p'ing, "The Development and Decline of the Eight Banners" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania), 1969), 84-88.
11 Lo Erh-kang, Li-ying ping-chih (Chungking, 1945), 199-200.
12 Cited in ibid., 53.
13 Lei Hai-tsung, Chung-kuo wen-hua yi Chung-kuo ti ping (Changsha, 1940).
14 W. T. deBary, et. al., eds., Sources of Chinese Tradition (New York and London, 1960), 2: 9-10.
15 IWSM, Hsien-feng, 28: 46b-47.
16 Ibid., 28: 47a-b.
17 Ibid., 28: 47b-49.
18 Zi, 112.
19 Chang Chung-li, 181 and note 69. See also Chang Pe'i-lun's reform proposals in 1889, YWYT, 3: 527-530, and Chang Chih-tung's in 1898, Ayers, 178-182.
20 Ralph Powell, The Rise of Chinese Military Power 1895-1912 (Princeton, 1955), 93.
21 Smith, "Chinese Military Institutions," 150-156; see also Wang Erh-min, Huai-chün chik (Taipei, 1967) 191-193, 207-208.