132
THE CHINA MAIL.
PUBLISHED WEEKLY.
RONGKONG, THURSDAY, 19TH JULY. 1965.
cavalry only 100 escaped, we may infer the fate of the infantry cannot have been much
better.
Of "social news there is not much to re- port from the north. The North China Daily Neics rays that "a meeting of treaty. At Hongkong, on the 14th July, the Wife of Deputy console was held on the 12th at H. B. M.
BIRTH.
Assistant Commissary General Hauns, of a Hol
DEATHS.
At the General Hospitat, Hongkong, on the 12th July URARLES COX, Coin Sergeant, 2nd Battalion 20th Regi mont, aged 87 years. Praeture of Reck.
At the General Hospital, Hongkong, on the 16th July, PATRICK LINDSAY, Prirate 2nd Battalion 20th Regiment, aged 20 years FOD.
At Canton, on the 13th instant, AFPULOGEUS JOHAFRES RATE&Auf apring Gardens, Aged years of Dysentery At Canton, on the 16th July, Mr. Baron, Pho- tographer.
At Hongkong, on the 18th July, the infant Daughter
of Xy and Mr W. DAVIDSOK.
EOMOES OF THE
WEEK.
Nares frma Shanghai-Treacherms Ececution of treo gerals by Li Futai-Defeat of the Imperialists-Land regulations Liberality of the Shanghai Rangers--The Meeting of Commercial Bank Creditor ---Death of Prince de Condé-American designs in China-Fracas at Ningpo- Punishment of Pak-4. Garrison-The Agra and Commercial Banka-Rowelt u. Hongkong, Canton and Macao Steam buat Co.--l'isit of the Duc d'Alencon to Hongkong-The Governor and the Colonists Manila j-supercession of the Captain General-The weather.
Consulate for the purpose of considering the revised Land Regulations, at which, we regret to learn, M. de Montmorand was An understanding too unwell to attend.
was come to that, in one of dispute be- tween the Municipal Council and any resi- dent in the English or American concession, the case should be tried before the national consul of the recnaaat. The question of Port Dues was brought forward, but no- thing clearly decided on.
The Shanghae Rangers have been bebar ing very liberally to the Ladies Bazaar fand, having presented it with Tls. 470.50, the proceeds of their late dramatic performance. Honor to the brave who are ready to pay as well as to fight.
A meeting had taken place of Commer cial Bank oreditors in which the affairs of the bank were discussed but no resolutions passod. Altogether, there does not seen to have been much effected beyond stating facts which most people know before.
The death of the Prince de Condé in Australia has been announced via Shanghai. Tur age of romance is not yet over in Chi-He died of a cold contracted while on a He was the eldest son na-if indeed the tales of secret intrigues pleasure excursion. and violent deaths which so abound in the of His Royal Highness the Duo d'Aumale, past annals of Eastern nations come under fourth son of His late Majesty Louis that denomination. Whon as children we Phillippe, and consequently com in of H.K. read of the great Caliph, walking in disguise. the Duc d'Alengon, now at Canton, through the highways, and hyways of his A curious letter addressed to the hang capital accompanied by that grim looking as R corder respecting the ultimate views illfavored executioner Mesrour, and learnt of America, upon China will be found in with a sort of delicious horror bow the wick-another portion of our columns. The same ed lost their heads in less than no time paper states that the Shanghai Chamber of while the good were rewarded with hand-Commerce are making arrangements for fuils of gold, we little suspected that do- obtaining statistics of the stock of Manu
THE CHINA MAIL.
Governor. There seems to have been a sort of misunderstanding between the Colonists and the bead of the Government arising out of certain little brusqueries which after all are but of slight importance compared to the energy, and sense he displays in re forming abuses, which call loudly for at- tention. That bo is not liked by his immediate subordinates is possible, but that we fancy is the natural effect of a transition from the very easy-going way of doing business which formerly characterized official Hongkong, to the strict discipline His Excellency is desirous of seeing carried out. It is to be hoped that the Colonists will see the wisdom of not expecting too much and that he on his part will not dis- dain to conciliate by attention to those trifles which frequently attract a greater share of notice than more important acta
From Manila some curious stories reach
week has varied between 84 and 90.03.
THE CHINA TRADE REPORTS FOR 1965.
the same chance of guining an honest live | cession of aumerical force in questions de libood as is possessed by their compra manding public consideration or recog dorsa, the ordinator must include natives nition. of all countries without exception, each paying an equal 10x. Even under thest- circumstances the Chinaroan will always possess a great advantage over the for
II. eigner from his intimate knowledge of the markets, his acquaintance with the lan-Ix continuation of our remarks upon the guage and, in short, the fact of his being Trade reports for the year 1865, which a Chinaman; while in pases of dishonor-appeared in the Ching Mail of the 12th, able conduct, such as effecting bargains on and Evening Mail of the 13th instant, wC his own account while receiving commission proceed to note that, in the second year of for them, &c., &c. it would, owing to the the periods comprised in the Customs Re- peculiar system of "squeezes" and bribers venue report, from 1st July 1861 to 30th pervading all native negotiations be ex-June 1862, four additional ports are shown tremely difficult to bring matters home to
bim,
No. 1118-July 19, 1866.
trade and influence mercantile operations to an injurious extent, we find a moat cheering and reassuring rosult and one which we traet, so far as its brightest and best indications point, is but the harbin ger of beiter days."
II.
FOLLOWING out our original plan of tak- ing the various itens of the Reports in the order in which they are published, we come to the port of Newchwang, with regard to which, the Commissioner, Mr. Macpherson, gives us one of the most interesting aci ounts to be found in the book. From it we learn that the port was opened to foreigners in 1861; and to be open, viz. Chinkiang (office esta- tablished April 1801); Tientelu (office es- during that year 83 vessels only, of an tablished May 1801); Foochow (fice estimated tonnage of 11,645 tous, entered established July 1861); and Amoy (office the port, the customs, revenue collected established April 1862). Again is the being Tis. 2,291. In the following year wonderful elasticity and expansiveness of the number of vessels entering Newch trade in China exemplified by the experi-wang increased to 86; the tonnage to ence we derive from the returus relating 27,747; and the revenue to Tls, 33,336. to these newly opened Poris. It is true In 1868, 201 vessels, of an estimated tonnage of 61,155 tune, arrived; the Revenue of Maritime Customs for the 92016 year being Tle. 89,785. 1864, 302 vessels, of an estimated tonnage of 88,251 tous arrived; the revenue for that year reaching Tis, Foochow 128,487. In 1865, 274 vessels of 01,118 tons entered the port, and the revenue ad- vanced to Ils. 167,061,
Such being the ease as regards brokers us respecting the Government oficials themselves holy does the proposed ordin- ance affect the merchants of the colony 7 The prescot Captain General has, it is said, been superoaded in consequence of oppres- In the first place any change from the sive acts towards the Chinese. The Go verument ara negociating a fresh bau, the present irresponsible system must be a clear gain to them. The position of a last attempt having been a failure.
The weather here is warm but the health broker is one of peculiar and heavy re- of the Colony remains pretty good. The sponsibility in many cases to those for and that a retrogressive movement was felt height of the thermometer during the past with whom he nogotiates. In the words with regard to Chinkiang from 1803 to of a notice recently issued by the associated 1865, inclusively, but each of these years brokers of London (published in the Eco-show a most satisfactory increase on 1862. nomist of April 7th) in which a reward of Tientsin roceded in 1863 from the amount By a letter which appeared in our Daily fifty pounds is offered to those giving in. realized in 1864, while in 1865 it nearly issue of the 17th instant, signed "A Bro- formation of any offence committed, con- doubled the receipts of 1862. ker," it would seem that much dissatisfac- trary to the set regulating the admission tion existe amongst the numerous indivi- of persons to her, as sword brokers, those duals following that line of business. Those who illegally act as such do an to the great whose connection is suffriently large to injury and prejudice of those duly ad- furnish an umple income, and who may be mitted as
brokers and to the manifest regarded as the aristocracy of their pro-hazard of merchants and others employ- fession (vulgarly denominated "Carriageg pereons poke are under Brokers") are very naturally somewhat "or limitations, nor have given bend with
sureties for their honest and jealous of the large number of those who,
westrictions
good
beler-
II
and Amoy have exbibited a steady in crease on each year, and in the eight ports open during the second year (from Ist
During the first four years, it appears, July 1861 to 30th June 1862) an amount the larger portion of the shipping belonged of Custoras Revenue was collected, almost to the North Gernian and Baltic ports; trebleing the sum received for the previ- that in 1864, the tourage of British ship- ous twelve months from the four ports ping was littlo more than a fourth of the then open and having Customs offices, total;, and, in 1865, was almost half- The subsequent years will still further The effect of this increase of European illustrate the rapid strides which con- shipping on the trade hitherto conducted
dom." Three additional offices were es are told by Mr Macpherson that "a few tablished in the third period (from 1st years ago over three thousand sea-going
kia, Hankow, and Chefoo; and three thirteen hundred entered the port," Auo. fourth year (from lat July 1963 to 30th the tonnage for 1865 is not one half others were opened in the subsequent or ther peculiarity calls for notice, although
ings uot very unlike the fictitious acts de- factured Goods in Shanghai on the 30th working on a minor acale, materially inter-iour as brokers regularly admitted by the merce is making in the "Middle King-by native craft, is truly astounding. We
being presented with a bowstring where riot which occurred at Chinbai between anything but feelings of love those who entrusted to his conduct. It is often in 1862 to 30th June: 1868), viz. Kiu junks arrived annually; last year barely
scribed in the well known "tales" were June. It is to be hoped that the merchants being actually enacted at that very time in will co-operate with a view to furthering so distant and then almost unknown China.desirable an object. When we read of the unfortunate Pascha From Ningpo we have news of a serious
6shermen and the aà- The garrison came to
the fishermen back to their boats; but the latter, having armed themselves, rallied and repulsed the troops in their turu.
with to strangle himself, neither we nor some 200 Foochow many of our present readers knew that tives of that town.
Auch prescuts were even then occasionally the assistance of the townsmen and drove and do their best to prevent "poaching" on tion, and the necessity of a legal registra Jane 1884), yiz Tamauy, Takow, and greater than that of 1863, yet the revenue,
made in the unvisited capital of China. The following paragraph taken almost ver batim from the Shanghai N. C. Daily New
fere with their profits without individually. Court'' benefiting to any very praceptible extenti The Broker is bound in honor to main- while the small brokers" regard with tain & discreet silence about the business
of course strive to keep up the extensive his power to cause immense loss either by Convections themselves they already possess, unintentional or fraudulent misrepresenta
their own grounds on the part of their levation is obvious. The mercantile coloma-
Both sections are nity are moreover desirous of this regis-Kinklang more than doubled its revenue Newchwang. The first in order of these, influential brethren,
tration in order to place a check upon the again (and with good reason) opposed to
in 1864, and also in 1855, although in merchants transact by far the largest por- as brokers who are personally interested in the successful purchase or sale of art cles in the market, and if the Chinese re- main unregistered no such check ou them can be imposed.
is twice as large.
There can be no doubt that, the native
describes a recent act which though per- Several persons on either side were, killed the indefinite number of natives of both system now prevailing of persons actingiko rlatte year there was a slight falling tion of the business carried at this part;
haps a hard necessity, is worthy of the man who perpetrated it.
It appears that the Viceroy had reason to suspect two of the commanders of the Tangchow forces of carrying on intercourse with the Nienfei leaders, so he determined
or severely wounded in the affray, and the authorities have sent to Ningpo for rein- forcements.
►
There is no news of importance from the
other ports.
The island of Paksui was, after having to decapitate them as an example; but as been taken from the pirates about a month
China and India, who transact a large amount of brokerage business without as suming the title or reputation of regular brokers. On the other hand the Mercan tile community generally are opposed to the system which so extensively prevails
off from its predecessor. Hankow more than trebled its receipts in 1864, but
there being only four foreign Firms ep-
again there was a diminutiou in the gaged in the import and export trade;
au understanding was believed to exist be- since, and garrisoned by imperialist sol of brokers not only acting as such, but as lowing effect. That lie will truly and in 1865 the sum realized was more than tween them and their troops, it was desir-diers, deserted by them. They are, we bear, able to carry out the sentence elsewhere to be severely punished and the mandarius
than in their camps, to avoid disturbance commanding them will be degraded -- A messenger was accordingly sent to inform or worse,
them that the Viceroy was so pleased with Of local matters that which has most occu- the reputed eficiency of their men and ex-pied pabic attention has been the action cellent arrangement of their camp, that he was coming down in person to inspect them, Accordingly, on the 5th, ultimo, Li made a rapid journey to Yangehow, was received of course with all honours, expressed him- self delighted, and requested the two gene- rals to return with him to Nanking, to re- seive more at leisure his assurances of es- teem. They obeyed, of course, and were probably surprised to find a Court impro- vised an route, themselves brought before it as prisoners, accused of treachery, and
brought by Mr Anderson the manager of the Agra and Masterman's Bank against Mr Krosser manager of the Hongkong and Shangline Banking Co., for illegally detaining notes to the amount of $50,000 sent by the former, to be cashed on the plea of indebtedness. A great mistake seems to have been committed by Mr Anderson's legal adviser in taking the action he did and describing Mr Krosser's conduct as "fraud bordering upon larceny." for which imputa- tion the magistrate stated that there was
has since been paid over to Mr Anderzou. A report of the case will be found elan- where. Some ingenions individuals have been busy in perunding the Chinese hold- ers of notes that the fact of the local bank detaining Mr Anderson's notes argued "shakiness" of its part, while well know-
principals also, whenever a good chance of thus making money presents itself. that altogether the time has arrived when it becomes neccssary in the interests of all parties to fix certain regulations which shall at once be both a protection and re.. straint to those engaged in this branch of the mercantile profession.
The Loudon Broker's oath is to the fo faithfully execute and perform the of Sofice of Broker between parts and party in all things pertaining to the duty of the said office, without frand or collusion to the best and utmost of his skill and "knowledge; that he shall in all cases reveal the name of his principal, and neither deal in goods on his own account The ordinance now stated to be under nor barter and sell again, nor make any discussion by the Legislative Council and gain in goods beyond the usual brotor- proposed at the late meeting of the Chamage; and that he shall regularly regis ber of Commerce is apparently well culeser all the contracts into which he en- lated to effect the objects in view of giving "ters." A band of £500 is entered into a status to brokers and protecting the in by the broker for the faithful performance terests of the mercantile houses, Leaving of all the duties sworn to in the oath of the latter subject for awhile we will first admission, consider the subject only in its bearings.
It is easy to see how advantageous the
amount collected during the subsequent and it seems that, of the 274 vessels ar- riving at Newchwang in 1865, only 37 year. Chefvo returned, in 1804, more than six times the receipts of 1863, and were consigned to, or lunded by, foreign- ets, During the past reason, the Chi- seven times, that of the first year (1883.) nese interested in the trade of this port are Tansuy increases slightly in 1865; but supposed to have expended Ts. 400,000 in Takow shows nearly ten times more for the chartering of Foreign vessels. 338,300 1865 than for the previous period! while pieces of Fulse Cake were exported by Newchwang actually advances, in the Foreign merchants, and 1,449,671 pieces same year to very nearly twelve times its by Chinese 19.650 reculs of Pulse were former amount. The third year was car-exported by Foreign Merchants, and tainly the most prosperous, and were we. 881,670 pecula by Chinese. With im- to strike as the ports included in the ports the case is similar. 80 peculs of fourth and fifth years, we should find a Opium were imported by Foreigners, and falling off on the aggregate receipts of 1,412 peculs by Chiucse. 11,650 pieces of Tia. 70,808 for the fourth year, Tls. Shirtings and T-Clothe were imported by 299,805 for the fifth,
Foreign Merchants, and 38,086 by Chi Statement II. needs no comment as its nese.. But perhaps, the best way of show- results have been exemplified in our pre-is engrossed by the native Traders, will ing how entirely the business of the port
vious remarks.
Statement III. shows the total annual
be to state that of the Tle. 167,000 re-
ordered to be decapitated. The sentence not the slightest foundation. The money upon the position of the brokers the imposition of such a bond upon the Colo- collections under each heading, from whichceived in revenue during 1865, only Tls,
carried out, bis Excellency returned to Nan- kin with the same expedition which had characterised his whole proceedings. There appeara ground for suspiciou that the dis- affection has not been completely extin-
guished in the persons of these two officers; thongh their deaths may perhaps prove a
ing any such statement to be totally false and groundless.
wholesome warning to others similarly dis- posed. A partial explanation of the extra- ordinary success by the Nienfei which we The termination of an interesting case have already reported, may perhaps became before the court on the 14th instant, found in the suspected sympathy of a por-relative to the time of starting the Canton tion of the troops with their opponents: steamers. Mr Rowott brought an action
selves,
a
The most useful step which could be taken would however be the formation of guild by the brokers themselves. This
more than three times much as in the
been almost as rapid and progressive the previous fall. Foreign metals, pec-
nial foreign brokers would be to the merit is interesting to observe, though last in 10,000 were paid by Foreigners." It' It is reported that the proposed ordiu chants, while the necessity of its being im-order, the falling off in the Native trade, will this be seen that the Lion's share of ance deals only with Europeans. Such a posed upon the natives doing such busi- which bas become reduced in the Newelwang is in possession of the Chi- both the import and export trade of course of procedure is hardly likely, but, ness in the interests of both merchant and years comprised in the returus, to very should it be intouded, it is difficult to see broker requires no discussion.
Grauted nearly one third of what it was daring es. We shall have occasion to refer on what grounds the Council have come to that it will be extremely dioult to insist the first year.
again to Mr Macpherson's report before The import trade was this determination. Its only effect would on the Chinese abiding by the terms of greatest in the second period, in fact concluding this series of articles; but, at be to place the foreign broker under the such an oath there is nevertheless a cer
present, pass on to the consideration of the disadvantage of having to dieburse a certain amount of power over them gained by first; in the third it was considerably gard to Tientsin. From this statement wo facts laid before us by Me Baker with re- tain sum annually and being compelled the fact of its being thoroughly understood more than twice as much as during the
learn that the demand for cotton piece to abide by certain rules which would that detection in underhand practices first; and in the fourth and fifth it pro-
goods declined from 1861 to 1868, when Such an act is worthy of the famous Li against the Hongkong, Cantou aul Macro form no bar to the native broker whenever would result in an instant expulsion from duced only a small increase on the re-
it reached its minimum,the single and recalls to one's mind the slaughter of steam-boat Company on the grouted of the it was to his interest to act in an indepen- the body to which they belonged.
ceipts of first year, the Wangs at Soochow by the same land. Kinshan having left Canton before the dent manner; while his pocket would not
item of Grey Shirtings showing a dif Opian has advanced marvellously, ference of upwards of 600,000 piécos; The successes of the Nientei are thus advertised hour. The learned judge de-suffer by being called upon to pay tax to
each year showing an improvement upon alluded to by the N. 0. Herald cided that the Captain had, by starting at the Government. Such a measure would
its predecessor, unifl in the fifth period and that since that period the advance has With the single exception of Pan, a his own time, of which due and reasonable doubtless be extremely popular amongst should include natives of all countries for it realised an amount, within a shadow of general who formerly held command of the notice was given by the ringing of the the Chinese, as its immediate effect would eign or Chinese, for as it would be impos- being eight times that of the year ending dles and matches, have increased in im- Sung-kiang district, every leader who has ship's hour and warning bells, done what be to throw much additional business into sible to check irregular brokerage were 30th June 1861. Export has been also come into collision with these much des could reasonably be required, giving at the their hands. Many of the smaller brokers the latter excluded, it would be the wisest improving, until the fifth year, when the ports to a very satisfactory extent, with pisod robbers, has met with defeat and dis-same time permission to appeal. Three of would probably find it impossible to do plan to admit them. The natives would falling off is not such as to create any
the single exception of matches. saster. One of Li-hung-obung's especial the five pirates found guilty of piracy with business in the face of an uncontrolled not be slow to appreciate the additional aların, being only aboat Tls. 200.000., or most important items, Lead, Tin Plates friends and protegés, Liu, who was associat intent to murder" are to be execțited to- ad in command with a Frenchman nerded morrow (Friday) morning at six o'clock competition, and would of necessity close importance bestowed upon them by the one twenty-third of the sun for 1864, and Tin, have largely extended, and the Pinel, has lost all his guns and a large pro- within the precincts of the gel. Four- their uffices, while the rieker class would, fact of their belonging to such a body while Tonnage too has advanced until the last Consumption of European needles has also turtion of his men; wkie Li-loh-ta-jes, a teen others have been captured and several though in a less degree, become aware of a combination such as we propose would period, but even then it realized three greatly increased. younger brother of the Viceroy, whose lentified and it is to be hoped that those the satisfactory results following on so dispossess an influence which no individual or times more than was received during the Tanie will be remembered as that of the guilty will share the fate of their compa- abling an ordinance. If it is the object of firm could possibly arrive at. Such infiu first period. The coast trade has steadily most unsuccessful general in this province nions. The two reprieved were admitted during the Taeping struggle, has been Queen'sevilence and pointed out the where completely routed. He succeeded in in-abouts of the last batch, geniously enclosing his meu by a circle of The Duc d'Alengon has been pating us. Nieufei and losing nine tenths of them kil- a visit. On Friday last a review was held led or made prisoners, besides 2,000 stand of the troops in Garrison at which they ac of Enfield rifles. What became of the quitted themselves very fairly. owners of the latter, our Information does
Much discussion has been taking place not explain; but seeing that out of 1,000 relative to the acts of his Excellency the
IV
The
the Government to afford every facility to ence might be for great good and expul progressed each year; and so far as we The total value of Imports at the port of the Chinese at the public expense (in the sion from the guild would become a thing have presented the results of our enqui- Tientsin during the past five years bus. same way as the present police systems to be dreaded almost as much by the naries to our readers, we see reason on- been as follows (1861, Tls, 5,014,070; affords protection to the rogue who is not tive as the foreigner, as his quarrel wouldly for congratulation. Notwithstanding 1862, Tls. 7,095,811; 1863, Tls, 6,275. caught flagranti delictu) it cannot do bet. then be with all following the same occu- the many unforseen and exceptional 225; 1864, Tls. 7,645.422; and in ter than pass an ordinance such as is above pation in the colony. The strong would causes that have occured during the five 1865, Tis. 11,852,437; being double that described. But if it be an object to increase in such a body of men strengthen the weak years under review, causes that must of 1861 The Export trade has been the Colonial revenue and afford Europeans while the former would benent by the se- have naturally had a tendency to depress comparatively insignificant, its value,
No. 1118.ULY
exclusive of trease be Tis. 461.579 for 152, 1863. T. 91332 1,710.786; and the 1835, The total value, trefire, Exports during the e not included, is 1862, Tls. 7,503
18 6.2
442; 1864, Tis, Ts. 13.544, 353 The i zure during 186
m Chefoo, was Tis.2000 port, during the sneeri Chefoo and Hongko
The return of Soming years, is very fawable.. increase, with the except 1861 there wer tommage; in 186 LE resscle of 21.92 na rose to 134
ان
in 1864 to 185 vesely of and in 1865 to 209 se gregate tonnage. dese 102 were British 98unc rican and of the British steamers, all her fr Hongkong.
At Chefoo, with ne find that the Irrtaine aver those of, the prio extent of Tls, 19170 same time the Epo fo teur of Tls. 2294 the total value 1 during 1865, let nearly one millio Tels. At Hankow, appears
of the Import Trade dor was. Tle, 10.8962). Ths. 8,415:545.present 2,179.089 Nale pro Exports for the same Tj 12,683.231 hing comparison with 1564. and less than 1843 . T Kerkiang eibts a Importe during me gust 1863 tie vald was e 3,057.568, wh fell 100, but rose i 205 te has been a copserble Exports of the y
with those of 83,
ment upon uło
of the export rape
Th, 7,310.190 12 18
in
Ts 3.132.653a
ris
8,481008; bei year of Tls 352
At Chinking the va amounted in 1964 I
in 1865 increrse to being an imparent upon the previous yea 1864 being yesatin Opium, Sanda og at five times thongs A Niugpo he he
on the total value of: Ts. 2,266,40
We have joine evening's issuti ela Fogohow by Bar,
our remarks arro
MISCELANE
A POINT vitalyer of many in the lon sideration by the Ju- Jurisdiction.. by a holder of tes Masterman ment to rederbei cessful form priced in a similarion, the fact will
aga
for
ceipt of a teletraga ba to justify au aliviar intents and unsce having been so ju-
court.
حيث
per
WB regrer ara the Shanghat Reorde rived at Shah of the audileneath of The Prince pea slight cold while
in the Hark! thia coli hepatiall receipt of eers -grand-motherio
the French,
tration ecaue fem w Prince never reover 24th of May E
The Princ de Con tha intention of itin Jonies, Ching Japan
We copy flow columns of the hos are afraid that the E the victim of another To the Editor ofte
Ms. Emra rent for some time th of North Ameri ha Tial conques in Asia
SHANGAZ