PERSISTENCE & PRESERVATION OF HAKKA CULTURE
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such as gardening, farming, and construction work in Hong Kong, and have considerable influence in these businesses. The development of voluntary associations is closely related to this situation. For instance, the Waichow Union Sheung Shui Branch seems to be a guild of the Hakka farm workers in the Territories; the Tze-kam District Countrymen's Association, a guild of the Hakka construction workers; the Lamma Branch of the Waichow Clansmen General Association, a guild of the Hakka vegetable gardeners; and the Association of Waichow-Chaochow-Hokkien Countrymen in Aplichau, a Hoklos' club of sailors, lightermen, grocers, and small businessmen. Therefore, as long as the facts of division of labor by dialect and locality exist, voluntary associations based on these traditional organizing principles continue to survive for the maintenance of solidarity, the persistence of culture, and the protection of the group's interests. In other words, the phenomena of "group within group" and division of labor by dialect and locality seem to be antagonistic, but are actually complementary in social and economic fields. This means that cultural differences do not in themselves explain tensions within a plural society, nor does economic exploitation of one group by another lead necessarily to conflict. On the contrary, conflict across group boundaries does appear when there are similar economic classes in both groups, in direct competition with each other (Willmott, 1967:96). Taking the present study as an example, tension and confrontation between the two Waichow Hakka association clusters, which are led by the Waichow Clansmen General Association and the Ten Districts of Waichow Association respectively, seem to be more keen and competitive than those between either of these two and the Waichow Hoklos' association cluster. However, from an anthropological point of view, confrontation between these diverse segments can also act as a positive unifying factor for group solidarity. As Coser states (1956:137):
Conflict creates links between contenders. It creates and modifies common norms necessary for the readjustment of the relationship, makes possible a reassessment of relative power, and thus serves as a balancing mechanism which helps to maintain and consolidate groups.
Viewed from another angle, many Waichow Hakka who came to Hong Kong after 1949, because of their socio-political background...
PERSISTENCE & PRESERVATION OF HAKKA CULTURE
45
such as gardening, farming, and consruction work in Hong Kong, and have considerable influence in these businesses. The develop. ment of voluntary associations is closely related to this situation, For instance, the Waichow Union Sheung Shui Branch seems to be a guild of the Hakka farm workers in the Nerritories; the Tze-kam District Countrymen's Association, a guild of the Hakka construc- tion workers; the Lamma Branch of the Waichow Clansmen General Association, a guild of the Hakka vegetable gardeners; and the Association of Waichow-Chaochow-Hokkien Countrymen in Aplichau, a Hoklos' club of sailors, lightermen, grocers, and small businessmen. Therefore, as long as the facts of division of labor by dialect and locality exist, voluntary associations based on these traditional organizing principles continue to servive for the maintenance of solidarity, the persistence of culture, and the pro- tection of the group's interests. In other words, the phenomena of "group within group" and division of labor by dialect and locality seem to be antagonistic, but are actually complementary in social and economic fields. This means that cultural differences do not in themselves explain tensions within a plural society, nor does eco- nomic exploitation of one group by another lead necessarily to conflict. On the contrary, conflict across group boundaries does appear when there are similar economic classes in both groups, in direct competion with each other (Willmott, 1967:96). Taking the present study as an example, tension and confrontation between the two Waichow Hakka association clusters, which are led by the Waichow Clansmen General Association and the Ten Districts of Waichow Association respectively, seem to be more keen and competitive than those between either of these two and the Waichow Hoklos' association cluster. However, from an anthropological point of view, confrontation between these diverse segments can also act as a positive unifying factor for group solidarity. As Coser states (1956:137):
Conflict creates links between contenders. It creates and modi- fies common morms necessary for the readjustment of the rela. tionship, makes possible a reassessment of relative power, and thus serves as a balancing mechanism which helps to maintain and consolidate groups.
Viewed from another angle, many Waichow Hakka who came to Hong Kong after 1949, because of their socio-political back-
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