337
Extent to
10
inish smoking of opium in private houses, and to confine it to adult males, and are a check on dross eating since neither the keeper nor the smoker may retain the dross. Their complete abolition would not improbably produce many evils not contemplated by those who have no actual knowledge of the circumstances.
It is to be noted that in Hongkong, where the adult male population (who alone smoke) is nearly equal to the total of women and children combined, the number who smoke in divans is only in the proportion of about 7 to 5 who smoke outside.* This proportion would be greatly less in rural districts. The closing of divans in Shanghai and the neighbouring city is said to have led to no apparent diminution in the sale and consumption of the drug.
Closing of divans in
China.
Further restrictions on divans.
Comparative effects of
substitutes.
**
China has not hesitated to adopt the closing of divans, but her ideas of justice and vested rights are not those which obtain among ourselves and to which expression was given in the recent debate on the Licensing Bill, nor has she to deal (as Hongkong has) with the question of the rights of a Monopolist. The result, however, is reported to be very unsatisfactory, though owing to her defective Police Force any such order can only be partially operative. The hardship and injustice is proportionately greater in a British Colony, and the step more drastic, since it is fully enforced.†
The divan will gradually disappear with the cessation of smoking, and till then it is a useful agent for control. Persons who exceed should be treated as habitual drunkards or dipsomaniacs are, and placed under control and restraint.‡ Divan licensees on whose premises such persons are found should be liable to fine and cancellation of licenses. They should only be allowed to be open during fixed hours say 7 a.m. to 11 p.m. and no customers should be allowed to sleep on the premises. Restrictions of this kind are being placed on divans, so long as any remain in Hongkong.
Every race in the World in every age has exhibited a desire for something to act pleasurably on the nervous system either as a stimulant or a sedative and Sir William Roberts who analysed the medical evidence given before the Indian Commission (of which he was the expert medical member) refers in his extremely interesting report to the "Euphoric" and non-medicinal effects of stimulants and sedatives, which are so essential to the nervous organization of man, as to constitute "a profound instinct of human nature".
(a.) Opium.
Lord Brassey's Commission (which recorded its proceedings in seven volumes totalling 2,550 pages of small print) is an encyclopædia of information on every aspect of the opium question, which should be studied by everyone interested in the matter. Innumerable witnesses of every class were examined and reports (in reply to a series of questions) were received from Hongkong, Singapore, and other places. The most eminent of Indian Administrators wrote reports and collected statistics for it. The commissioners record this weighty opinion: "We have made
3.572 per cent. smoke in divans
Clementi 12.6.08.
2.678 per cent. smoke outside divans
**The facts, in comparison with Hongkong, appear to be as follow:-The population of the International Settlement (no divans have been closed in the French concession) was estimated in 1907 at 510,000 of whom about half are adult males (viz., possible smokers). There were 1,437 divans, 1 per 177.4. The adult male population of Hongkong in 1907 (exclusive of the New Territories) is estimated at 200,000 and there were 191 divans viz. 1 per 1,037. Thus Shanghai had in 1907 proportionately about six times as many divans as Hongkong. By 31st December, 1908, 709 of the divans had been closed. Disregarding any increase of population this would allow one divan per 350 adult males. Hong-kong from 1st March 1909 has 165 divans viz., 1 per 1,212 males, leaving Shanghai with still 3 or 4 times as many. A large number of Shanghai divans are also brothels, where prostitutes minister to the smokers, and some are very large houses, consisting I believe of several floors. This is a radically different matter from the divans of Hongkong and may perhaps account for the views held by many in England. Report has it that many of the divans when closed became opium shops while others were carried on secretly. In Singapore there are within the Municipality 414 divans with a population of 99,173 males over 10 years viz. 1 divan per 241 adult males.
Mr. James Munro, C.B., was one of the witnesses examined by Lord Brassey's Commission. He had formerly been Inspector General of Police in Bengal, then Commissioner of Bengal and finally Chief Commissioner of Police in London. At the time he was examined by the Commission he had returned to India as a Missionary, and he is one of the witnesses to whose evidence the Commissioners in their final report direct special attention. (Vol. VI. p. 23. § 82.) When asked his opinion as to the closing of divans, he said his view was clear that it was a wiser policy to keep them open, and under Police control (Vol. II. p. 150). In this view the Commissioners apparently concur while adding that the restrictions in India had not been long enough in operation to afford material for a final conclusion (Vol. VI. p. 23) and that there was little opium smoking in India. I may add that I had formed my own conclusions from local investigation before reading the Indian Commission's report.
The Straits Commission do not accept this view and stigmatise the compulsory detention of "Sots" as
“intolerable and unjustifiable" Report § 977.
§ Indian Commission Vol. VI pp. 99 to 119. Summary of medical evidence by Sir W. Roberts, F.R.S.
11
exhaustive enquiry into the consumption of opium in India and its effects. We find no evidence of extensive moral or physical degradation from its use. It is extensively used for non-medical and quasi-medical purposes in some cases with benefit, and for the most part without serious consequences."
." This verdict refers to the eating of opium, which expert evidence goes to show is much more potent in its effects than smoking.† Sir William Roberts in his summary § states that proof has been given that smokers might continue the habit for 10, 20, or 30 years without detriment to their health. It has been the universal household remedy for centuries,** and is extensively given to children,†† and is a useful digestive to a rice-eating people. It is stated to be a prophylactic against malaria,‡ and though modern research would probably negative this theory, there is no doubt that it affords a means of relief where remedies are not available and is therefore of special value in a country like China where irrigation is so extensive, and low-lying valleys planted with rice fields abound. Dr. Crombie, Superintendent of the Government Hospital at Calcutta, went so far as to state it as his opinion to the Commission that to deprive the people of a malarial district of opium would be "a terrible and wanton cruelty".
Such authoritative opinions as these, based on one of the most exhaustive enquiries ever held into any such subject must arrest the attention, and demand the earnest consideration of those who approach this subject from no ex-parte point of view. The question at issue is whether looking to the fact that all races at all times have adopted some form of stimulant or sedative, we may not by misdirected zeal substitute a worse for a comparatively harmless habit. Few I think will be found who will oppose efforts for restriction and control, and for ensuring moderation, but for my own part I view with much misgiving the attempt at total abolition of opium smoking, and of the methods by which the habit is at present kept under due control.‡‡
Professor Giles has demonstrated that in ancient times the Chinese were (6.) Alcohol. addicted to alcohol till it was replaced by opium. Drunkenness is not considered disgraceful, and the Chinese are proud of their powers of drinking and are never voluntary abstainers. Mr. Fox, Consul General of Canton informs me that a large majority of the officials and gentry are already fond of wines and spirits, and would drink heavily if they did not smoke. The introduction of railways into China will facilitate the supply of alcohol, hitherto restricted by lack of transport, which opium being light and portable does not need. It is also alleged, but I know not whether on good authority, that local manufacture is increasing.
† Dr. Ayres' evidence Ibid Vol. V. p. 193.
* Indian Commission Vol. VI p. 97.
Ibid Vol. VI. p. 119. The researches of Moissan are referred to by Sir William Roberts (Vol. VI p. 119) who summarises the conclusions arrived at after a study of these writings and of the evidence of witnesses as follows:-The experience of Europeans who have tried smoking and who are very sensitive to the hypnotic action of morphia, seems to show that the enjoyment of the smoker is not due to the absorption of unchanged morphia. That some traces of morphia are conveyed into the lungs of the smoker is however pretty certain
but as this smoke is forthwith expelled again, there would probably be very little absorption of morphia by the pulmonary tissue. What the gases evolved by heated chandu (prepared opium) consist of we do not accurately know." The determination of the constituents of the smoke inhaled by the opium smoker and the nature of the residue absorbed is being investigated by Mr. Clementi, Assistant Colonial Secretary, and the Government Analyst of the Colony, but the results of the experiments cannot be known for some little time. A similar investigation was being conducted in the Straits, (Report of Commissioners Vol. II p. 102). It appears probable that the smoke first given off contains the most morphine, amounting however only to one-tenth of a 1% of the opium smoked." Even of this mere trace only a part remains in the lungs, the remainder being exhaled. The Government Analyst (Mr. P. Brown) considers that in moderate smoking the system is capable of completely oxidising all the various products and it is therefore harmless. In excess, though the morphia is oxidised the other products, of a tarry and oily nature, are not (see Brit. Pharm. Codex p. 721) and excessive smoking is therefore harmful. Looking to the great variation in the amount of morphia etc. contained in different kinds of opium (Indian 4 to 8. Turkish 8 to 12½ %) the question arises whether by artificial selection &c. a non-toxic opium for smoking could be produced. India is I believe experimenting in this direction but with a view to producing an opium containing more morphia, in order to compete with Turkey for the medicinal supply.
†† Ibid p. 105.
†† Vol. VI. pp. 105-112.
** Ibid p. 108.
The Straits Commission's Report nowhere refers to the exhaustive Indian Commission from which it seems as though they had not had it before them. They arrive, however, at very similar conclusions viz., that the evil results are greatly exaggerated (§96, 384) and that the medical evidence goes to show that they are small (§328) when smoking is done in moderation. That the vast majority smoke in moderation (§271, 225, 117) and the evil effects are confined to "Sots" who are rare, and are ostracised like habitual drunkards (§ 103); and finally that there is no tendency for the moderate smoker to continually increase the dose, till he becomes a "Sot" (§108. 114,271). They recommend restriction with due regard to the liberty of the subject, on the grounds that the habit is Wasteful and seldom beneficial", but emphatically deprecate prohibition, which in Australia is understood to have resulted only in organised and successful smuggling (§136).
Nineteenth Century December, 1907,