almost parallel only a few miles distant. The loads, which often weigh as much as 120 catties (say 160 lbs.), but usually 80 catties, are carried in baskets slung on the shoulders, and the journey is divided into long and short stages of about 30 and 20 miles respectively. The cost of porterage works out to about 7d. per cwt. per stage of 20 miles. The strain of carrying such heavy burdens over steep passes for mostly cultivated, whilst the higher parts were covered with extensive woods. The
days or even weeks in succession must be very severe, and it was apparent in the distressed look noticeable in the faces of many of the coolies. The roads are apparently too rough for pack animals, for we met none throughout the journey, but we occasionally saw a pony or two in the fields. For agricultural purposes cows and oxen seem to be almost exclusively used.
The scenery was very picturesque, the most conspicuous feature of the landscape being the beautiful tallow tree, which at this season (beginning of November) is at its best. I think I have never seen anything more beautiful in the way of colouring than the ruddy tints and white seeds of this tree, which is found scattered through all the valleys and on the lower slopes of the hills. The summer crops—rice, sesamum, cotton, and corn—had lately been gathered, and the fields were already beginning to look green with autumn-sown wheat and beans. In many places the banks and lower slopes were gay with a pretty yellow flower, which is supposed to be the parent of the chrysanthemum. Another interesting plant frequently seen was the black-berry, the stems of which are covered in the winter with a white wax, presumably for protection against the cold, as it disappears in the summer. The berries are not eaten.
Towards dusk we arrived at our halting place for the night, having covered some 20 miles and reached an altitude of about 1,200 feet.
From this point onwards the country became more rugged and the population more sparse and scattered. At first our road lay along the banks of the Ching River, whose clear and sparkling water formed a delightful contrast to the turbid waters of the Yang-tsze, into which it flows at Itu, a few miles below Ichang. In the summer rafts of cypress, which grows in abundance on the hill-sides, and is extensively used for building junks, are floated down it to that place. Here are also seen occasional groves of liquid amber, and plantations of small bamboo, used for making paper. For two days we ascended and descended passes of from 1,500 feet to over 3,000 feet. The hill-sides were extensively cultivated, even in places which seemed too steep to stand on. I was told that sometimes the men have to be suspended by ropes whilst working. There were certainly many cultivated spots steeper than the roof of any ordinary house. The crops seemed to be much the same as in the valleys, except that rice was replaced by Indian corn, and the sweet potato was more common. Thick woods of pine, oak, and beech abounded everywhere. On the fourth day we had a stiff climb up a bleak and barren range of hills, overgrown with long grass, and broken here and there by a field of Indian corn or a patch of vegetables. On the summit—about 5,000 feet—we found a quarry where tombstones were being cut. At the moment the men were engaged in polishing a stone, which they do by pouring lime and water on it, and then pushing over it backwards and forwards a heavy slab of granite. From here we made an abrupt descent to a small hamlet named Kuan Pao, lying in a sort of basin enclosed on all sides by hills. These basin-shaped depressions are very common, and, judging by the marshy condition of one we saw, would appear to be the sites of former lakes. The weather, which had hitherto been very warm, was now cold at night, and the ground was covered with white frost every morning. In the front room of the inn the thermometer fell to freezing point. The low temperature was probably in some measure due to the proximity of a range of mountains, close on 7,000 feet high, which forms a solid and unbroken barrier for many miles. We climbed up a precipitous path through woods of oak and beech, with an undergrowth of hazel and rhododendrons, to the top of this range, and found on the other side an undulating grassy plateau, for the most part uncultivated and uninhabited. Foxes were said to be abundant, and tigers, leopards, and wild pig are occasionally seen. A few miles distant there is said to be an iron mine, from which the needs of the inhabitants of the district are supplied. I was told about fifty men are employed in it, and that there are ten smelting furnaces, each employing about fifteen hands. We saw iron ore from this mine in two or three villages, but I have not the necessary knowledge to express any opinion as to its quality. In the neighbourhood there is also said to be a red earth which appears to be used for colouring purposes. I was unable to obtain any definite particulars about it, and had no time to visit the place of production. Shortly after leaving Kuan Pao we began the descent of a steep pass with precipitous and well-wooded hills on either side.
For some distance the vegetation was most luxuriant, and the colouring of the trees beautiful beyond description. I have seen nothing to beat it even in Japan. Our path then lay by a gradual ascent up a long slope, the lower portion of which was wild; rose bush seemed to grow everywhere, and masses of red berries made the slopes gorgeous with colour. The persimmon, with its golden fruit, was a conspicuous feature of the landscape, and in the neighbourhood of the cottages hedges of quince, which is used for medicinal purposes, were common. Although at about the same altitude as Kuan Pao, and only about 15 miles distant, we found the temperature here at night nearly 20 degrees higher. A further short climb, followed by a very precipitous descent for several miles, brought us back to the main road to Shih-nan-fu, which we had left on the morning of the fourth day. In this neighbourhood (between Lanping and P'u-tzu) a few white bark pine trees are found growing in a wild state. I am told this tree is known to grow wild in only one other place.
Vegetable Products.
As being the more convenient arrangement, I have reserved for separate treatment several products of the district traversed which seem to be of some interest from an economic point of view.
Tallow Tree. Method of making Tallow.
The tallow tree (locally called "mu tzu shu") I have already mentioned as abounding in the valleys. It seems to flourish best up to an altitude of about 1,500 feet, and is not found above about 2,000 feet. The seeds are coated with a white substance, and it is from this that the tallow is obtained by the following process: The seeds are steamed, then pounded whilst still warm, and sifted, the white coating passing through the sieve in the form of a coarse brown powder, which, after being ground, is again steamed, placed in straw bags, and pressed in a press. The resulting oil, called "pi yu," is poured into tubs, where it quickly hardens and resumes its original white colour. It is then placed in wooden buckets, and when quite hard turned out in blocks and packed in straw ready for transport. In this form the tallow is mixed with rape or varnish oil or animal tallow before being actually made into candles, the two oils being used for fine candles for religious purposes (burning in temples, &c.), and animal tallow for candles of a coarse quality for domestic purposes.
Tallow Oil.
After the white coating on the seed has been taken off, there remains the actual seed, from which another oil, “tzu yu,” is extracted, by a process somewhat similar to that above described. The outer shell and the heart, which is white, are separated by being ground between two mill-stones. The hearts, which remain intact, are then crushed under a large stone wheel pulled in an erect position by an ox or mule around a circular stone trough. They are then steamed, roasted, made into cakes in iron moulds, and pressed in a press similar to the cider press still used in country districts in England. The resulting oil, "tzu yu," is used for illuminating purposes.
Sometimes the whole seeds, i.e., without removing the white exterior, are crushed and turned into oil, which is called "mu yu." This is also used for making tallow for candles of a coarse quality such as are burned in lanterns. Candles of this quality are manufactured at Ichang.
There are thus two kinds of tallow and an oil obtained by varying the process of extraction. The refuse cakes are used as a fertilizer, and the husks as fuel.
Value of Tallow Tree, &c.
A good tallow tree bears about 20 lbs. of seeds, which yield 25 to 30 per cent. of (oil from the pure tallow (tallow from the exterior coating), 20 per cent. "tzu yu" hearts), or 60 per cent. "mu yu" (tallow from the whole seeds). The local price of tallow is, at the present time, about 3½d. per lb. for first quality, and a fraction over 2d. per lb. for second quality, and of the seeds from ¾d. to 1d. per lb. According to the Customs valuation the price is about 11s. 6d. per cwt. (nearly 3d. per lb.), but the different kinds are not distinguished.
[2816 y-2]
* This is also the term for tallow