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Index
American Asiatic Association, 116 American China Development Company
(ACDC), 109, 110, 116, 161–63, 170 Anfu clique, 243, 255, 263, 273, 275, 280,
281
Anti-Cigarette Smoking Society, 172,
189, 233, 234
Bank of China, 228
Bash, A. W., 162, 164, 170 Bastid-Bruguiere, Marianne, 138
Beiyang College, 98 Belgium, 101, 109, 163 Bland, J. O. P., 153
bourgeoisie, Chinese, 8, 10, 11, 13, 15,
18, 21, 23, 36, 41–43, 44, 55, 56, 68, 72, 74, 92, 137, 138, 140, 150, 169, 192, 194, 195, 221, 287, 290
Bowring, Sir John, 16
Boxer Indemnity, 143, 182
Boxer Uprising, 3, 111, 140, 193, 289 boycott of U.S. goods, 116, 130, 154,
165–68, 181, 189, 234, 240, 244, 246, 290
Cai Shaoji, 98
Cai Tinggan, 208 Cai Yin, 227
Cai Yuanpei 蔡元培,218
Caldwell, R. D., 15–16 Calhoun, William J., 205 Cao Kun 曹錕. 243, 275
Cao Rulin, 241, 243, 246-49,
266, 268
Carlowitz and Company, 83 Carnegie, Andrew, 128, 186, 203 Cary, Clarence W., 109
Cen Chunxuan 岑春煊,232, 254-76
passim
Chan, Ming, 12
Chan, Wellington K. K., 68, 148, 150
Chen Aiting, 24, 30–31, 36
Chen Bi, 149, 152, 153 Chen Chengde, 85, 87 Chen Duxiu, 277
Chen Jiongming, 16, 232, 254,
272-78, 280-84
Chen Jitong, 90
Chen Lanbin 陳蘭彬,31,36, 37, 78
Chen Qimei 陳其美,5,195-99, 201,
204, 207, 208, 216, 223–25, 226–30, 238
Chen Youren 陳友仁,250,263, 266 Chen Zuling, 189
Cheng Biguang H, 250, 254, 255,
257-59
Cheng Dequan 程德全,198,206, 208,
216, 217-18
Chiang Kai-shek. See Jiang Jieshi China Merchants' Steam Navigation
Company (CMSNC), 21, 46, 73, 74, 75, 78, 81, 84–85, 142, 200, 221, 225-27
China Railway Company, 84–92
Chinese Exclusion Laws, 3, 111–16, 129–
32, 169, 183, 289
Choa, G. H., 23
Chou'an Hui, 240
Christianity, 27, 35, 122-24, 127, 128 Chung Ngoi San Po. See Zhongwai Xinbao Cohen, Paul A., 13, 293
colonial intelligentsia, 1, 7, 17, 20, 31,
287,288
colonial situation, 13, 16, 25, 29, 40, 288 commercial code, 5, 106, 107, 108, 150
commercial law code, 38, 145
commercial treaties, 133, 139, 141, 142,
147, 160, 175, 197
Communications clique, 140, 180, 264 Confucianism, 35, 125, 127, 239
313
314
Conger, Edwin, 117-18, 130, 153-54 constitutionalists, 194, 197, 205–8, 210,
211-12, 216-17, 219, 220–30 passim cosmopolitanism, 122, 227, 228 Cotton Dealers' Guild of Guangzhou, 8,
11
Cuba, 31, 36, 110, 131, 139, 171, 180,
183, 185
Customs surplus, 265, 271-74, 279
Daily Press, 29, 45, 50, 53, 54, 59 Dalin, Serge, 282 Denby, Charles, 83
Ding Richang TB, 35, 37
Ding Rong, 227
Ding Ruchang, 97
Ding Shijie, 247
Ding Shouchang, 81
Diplomatic Affairs Discussion
Commission, 248, 249
Draft Procedural Code, 5, 172, 176–79,
290
Drummond, W. V., 78, 79
Duan Qirui, 6, 222, 231, 242,
243, 255, 257, 262, 273, 275, 280–82
Eitel, E. J., 16, 17, 30, 56
Empress Dowager (Cixi), 5, 90, 118, 119,
140, 141, 148, 149, 174, 178, 182, 183, 185, 191, 289
Empress Longyu, 222 England, 9, 22, 23, 25, 31-34, 35, 50,
59–60, 73, 77, 100, 132, 145, 166, 186, 217, 223, 236, 293
Eurasian, 14, 15
extraterritoriality, 2, 3, 78, 104, 106, 156,
173, 176, 287, 288, 290
factionalism, 6, 232, 243, 253, 273, 288,
290-92
Fan Baichuan, 150
Fan Yuanlian, 250
Far Eastern Athletic Association, 235
Fei Chi Ho, 129
Feng Guozhang, 242, 243, 245,
249, 254-57, 259, 262, 263, 273
Feng Ziyou, 217
Fengtian clique, 280
filial piety, 124–26
Five Cardinal Relations, 124–25
flogging, 15, 52-54
Folsom, Kenneth E., 72 Foster, John W., 96, 162, 181 Francis, J. J., 54
Fraser, David, 222, 267
Index
Fraser, Sir Everard, 201, 202, 213, 214 Fu Bingchang, 103, 261, 271,
274, 275
Fuzhou Chinese Trade Committee, 77
Gangyi, 191
Gao Erjian, 250
Gilbert, Rodney, 279
Gong Xinming, 152
Good Friends Association, 254, 256
Goodnow, Frank J., 240
Great Britain, 1, 7, 13, 24, 31, 69, 99,
101, 106, 156, 157, 209
Colonial Office, 19, 56–57, 61, 62–64 Gu Hongming, 144, 190
Gu Weijun, 241, 249, 265, 266 Gu Zhaoxin, 153
Gu Zhongxiu, 254
guandu shangban, 2, 75, 92
Guang Sunmou, 86
Guangxi Army, 254, 257
Guangxu Emperor, 5, 87, 104, 182, 185 Guangzhou
and Hong Kong 10-13
general strike (1919), 269-70 Governments, 6, 231, 253-85 guanshang heban, 84
Guo Songtao, 35, 36, 37, 38-40 Guo Taiqi, 263, 266 Guomindang, 6, 231, 236–39, 243, 244,
248-51, 253, 254, 256, 257, 259, 263, 264, 268, 269, 271, 276–77, 282, 283,
285
Hague, The, 165, 217, 234 Harding, Warren G., 279
Hart, Sir Robert, 39, 153, 168, 176 Hawaii, 3, 111, 113, 129, 130, 165, 183,
289
Hay, John, 113-16, 118, 121, 130-32,
153, 154, 165, 167
Hayashi, Count, 98, 100, 247
He Dong (Sir Robert Ho Tung), 21, 22 He Jinshan 何進善, 22, 28, 31
He Miaoling 何妙齡,28,76
Index
He Qi, 1, 4, 21, 22–23, 28, 31, 34,
67, 101, 142, 287, 289
Hennessy, Sir John Pope, 48–67 passim Hicks-Beach, Sir Michael, 56, 58, 62 Hill, David J., 119, 165
Ho Tung, Sir Robert. See He Dong Holcombe, Chester A., 77 Hong Kong, 7-69 passim
Chinese intelligentsia, 17-24 commerce (1877–82), 41-47 Chinese bourgeoisie, 8-13, 18 City Hall Museum, 60–62
flogging of Chinese prisoners, 15, 52–
54
Government Central School, 20, 22, 23 Police Magistrate's Court, 29–30 Seamen's Strike, 282
Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking
Corporation, 85, 91, 272
Hu Hanmin
Hu Weide, 246
283, 284
E, 218, 257, 272, 274,
Hu Xuanze, 36, 40, 59
Hu Ying, 210
Hu Yufen, 88
Hua Tuo Hospital, Hong Kong, 55 Huang Sheng, 22
Huang Xing, 207, 209, 211, 216,
217, 220, 224, 226, 233, 238
Huang Zunxian, 101
Huazi Ribao (Wah Tze Yat Po), 24, 238 Hunt, Michael H., 143, 181, 182
Ijuin Hikokichi, 215
Imperial Railway Company of North
China, 90
Inoue Kaoru, 79
International Institute, 141, 186, 203 Ito Hirobumi, 76, 93–95, 102
Japan, 2, 76, 79–80, 92, 97, 99, 100, 105,
127, 142-44, 153, 159, 166, 174–75, 182, 187, 212, 215, 217, 220, 221, 226, 228, 235, 243, 245–47, 262, 264, 265, 274, 275
Jardine, Matheson and Company, 14, 21,
22, 53, 85 Jiang Chaozong, 251 Jiang Jieshi
199, 224, 281
(Chiang Kai-shek),
Jordan, John N., 204, 213–16, 245 Ju Zheng, 208, 217
315
Kaiping mines, 2, 21, 80-82, 91 Kaiping Railway Company, 83, 85 Kang Youwei, 4, 110, 124, 125,
234, 241, 274, 289
Kaye, John Lister, 160 Kellogg, J. H., 128, 187
Kennedy, Raymond, 13-14
Keswick, William, 53, 61–63, 69
Kiaochow Incident, 104
Kinder, Claude W., 81, 86, 88
Kong Xiangxi, 129
Koo, V. K. Wellington. See Gu Weijun
Labuan, 50
Lang, William, 79
Lansing, Robert, 263
Laoxikai Affair, 243, 245-46
law reform, 2, 5, 38–40, 106–8, 125–26,
134, 139, 153, 156, 170, 171, 172–79, 218, 227-28, 290–91
Legge, James, 20, 23, 34
Lei Fen, 210
Li Bingheng, 191
Li Fuming, 83, 84
Li Genyuan 李根源,254,271,273 Li Guoqi, 92
Li Hongzao, 98
Li Hongzhang 李鴻章,2-4,35, 38-39,
57, 67, 71-102 passim, 104, 108, 109, 118, 138, 140, 179, 186, 193, 274,
288
Li Houji, 275, 277
Li Jiannong, 254
Li Jingfang, 186, 232
Li Liejun, 254, 258, 261, 266,
271, 272, 274, 281
Li Pingshu, 189, 196–99, 201,
202
Li Shizeng, 272
Li Xiehe, 197, 198, 208, 224
Li Yuanhong, 6, 198, 207–10,
231, 232, 236, 242–44, 248–56, 258, 262, 281, 284, 285, 291, 292
Li Zhaotang, 38, 80 Lianfang, 96, 146, 152
Liang Cheng 梁誠, 145, 165, 180 Liang Dunyan, 144, 180, 182, 252
316
Liang Qichao 梁啟超,4,100, 110, 146,
212, 236, 243, 249
Liang Shiyi, 140, 180, 220, 222,
264, 281
Liangbi, 222
Liao Fengshu, 274
Liao Zhongkai 廖仲愷,274,277, 281,
284
liberalism, 5, 138, 223–25, 239, 291, 292
Lin Baoyi 林葆懌,254,260,262
Lin Hu, 258
Lin Sen, 272
Lincoln's Inn, 23, 32–34, 158
Liu Cheng'en, 208
Liu Fubiao, 199
Liu Hanfang, 89
Liu Kunyi-, 36, 40, 57, 67, 118,
133, 140, 173
Liu Pengnian, 174
Liu Shixun, 249
Liu Xihong, 36
Liu Yanyi, 200
Lodge, Henry Cabot, 181
London Missionary Society 20, 23, 29 Long Jiguang, 254, 262
Lu Haihuan, 139, 143, 144, 175 Lu Rongting, 254–62, 264, 266,
268, 269, 275, 280
Lu Zhengxiang, 243, 248-50,
265
Lu Zongyu, 249
Luk, Bernard Hung-Kay, 175, 177, 178 Luo Fenglu, 73, 95, 101, 111,
117, 120, 140
Luo Yinggong, 212
Ma Fengchi, 257
Ma Jianzhong, 73, 75, 95, 140 Ma Junwu, 206
Ma Soo, 279
McKinley, William, 117, 118, 121 MacKinnon, Stephen R., 150 Manchuria, 90, 95, 96, 104, 133, 137,
143-44, 146, 153, 159, 166, 167, 169,
181-82, 243, 246, 281
Maring, 282
Marsh, Austin W., 64-66
Martel, Count de, 246
Medhurst, C. Spurgeon, 203
Mexico, 139, 171, 180, 183, 185
Index
missionaries, 3, 14, 20, 35, 104, 105, 107,
121-24, 293
Mo Rongxin 莫榮新,257,259,261,
267-69, 273, 276, 277
modernization, 7, 24–25, 74, 75, 104–7, 128, 132–33, 172, 288–91, 294
Morrison, George E., 120, 221–37, 238,
252
Morrison Education Society, 20, 21 Mu Xiangyao, 196
mufu, 2, 72–74, 77, 92, 96, 109, 138, 140,
179, 193, 264, 288
Murrow, Yorick Jones, 29 Mutsu Munemitsu, 93–94, 156
Nagasaki Incident, 77-80 Nathan, Andrew, 232, 243
nationalism, 1, 4, 32, 37, 39, 69, 101,
106, 131-33, 137–39, 156, 158, 165, 168, 169, 181, 191, 228, 287, 288, 290, 292
Natong, 152, 164 Ng A-ts’un, 30
Ng Chan. See Wu Chen Ni Sizhong, 250
Nishihara loan, 247
North-South Peace Talks (1911–12),
211-16, 219–22
North-South Unification Talks (1918-
19), 261-67
Otis, Major General, 114–16, 129
Panama, 183, 184
Paris Peace Conference, 264–66, 280 Peking Syndicate, 160, 161
Peng Pai, 277
Peru, 3, 31, 36, 37, 57, 71, 76, 100, 139,
171, 180, 183, 184
Philippine Exhibit, 235, 240
Philippine Islands, 3, 111, 114–16, 129–
31, 165, 235, 270, 289
Po Leung Kuk, 65
Political Study Group, 254, 271
Porter, Jonathan, 72
Porter Case, 57, 77
Portsmouth Conference, 166
Portuguese, 14, 15, 30
Powderley, Terence V., 129
Prince Chun (Yixin), 79, 82, 84, 90, 91
Index
Prince Qing (Yikuang), 141-47, 152-54,
166, 180, 188, 194
Prince Regent, 190, 205, 206, 210 Progressive Party, 235
Qian Nengxun, 175
Qing Bang, 199
Qingchang, 111
Qu Hongji, 152, 164, 168, 180,
182
Qu Wang, 268
queue, 133, 171, 172, 185-89, 197, 212
railways, North China, 80-92 passim Rational Diet Society, 188, 189 reform movement
post-Sino-Japanese War, 97-100, 104–
11
post-Boxer Uprising, 138-92 passim Reid, Gilbert, 186, 203, 234 Reinsch, Paul S., 239, 248 Rennie, Sir Richard, 79 Republican Party, 235
republicanism, 207, 208, 212, 215, 252 Restoration Society, 197, 198, 224 Revive China Society, 101 Revolutionary Alliance, 195, 198, 206,
217, 224
Rhoads, Edward, 223
rights recovery movement, 160–65, 169,
170
Ristelheuber, P., 88
Rockhill, W. W., 158, 166–68, 179, 181,
184, 234
Rong Hong 容閎,73,78
Roosevelt, Theodore, 129–32, 154, 166,
167, 181, 182
Rosenbaum, Arthur L., 84 Rozario, R. A., 30
Russia, 3, 100, 101, 104, 106, 109, 143,
146, 153, 157, 159, 166, 169, 245 Russo-Japanese War, 153, 156, 158–59,
170
St. Paul's College, Hong Kong, 20, 21,
27-29
Satow, Ernest, 153, 157-61, 166
Saturday Club, 234
Shameen Affair, 78
Shang Binghe, 199
Shang Bu, 144, 145, 147–53, 160, 161,
168, 169
Shanghai Merchants' Volunteer Corps
Association, 186, 189, 195
Shanghai Mixed Court, 147, 175, 176,
201
317
Shanghai Restoration, 195–205 passim shangzhan, 24
Shao Youlian, 93 Shaoying, 150, 151
Shen Baojing, 83, 86
Shen Baozhen, 39
Shen Jiaben 沈家本,5,134,139, 142,
153, 172–79, 290
Shen Manyun 沈漫雲,195,196 Shen Tunhe, 189
Sheng Xuanhuai, 74, 75, 84, 85,
98, 101, 109, 117–18, 139, 140, 142, 143, 147, 148, 161–65, 168, 169, 226, 232, 289
Sigel, Louis T., 139, 211
Sino-American Treaty of Arbitration, 182 Sino-Japanese War, 93-97 Smale, Sir John, 47, 58
social purity reformers, 128, 187, 293 Society for the Protection of Chinese
Trade, 240
Sokolsky, George, 274 Sone Toshitora, 78
Song Hanzhang 宋漢章,228-30 Song Jiaoren, 195, 208, 209, 211,
216-17, 237
Su Bao Case, 146, 147, 175
Sun Baoqi, 249
Sun Chuanfang, 284
Sun Fo, 271
Sun Hongyi, 243, 247, 256, 266 Sun Jia'nai, 87, 174
Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen), 4, 6,
101, 193, 216–27, 231, 232, 249, 253-85 passim, 286, 289, 292, 293
Tan A-choi, 18 Tan Renfeng, 259
Tang Hualong, 241
Tang Jiyao, 255, 258, 260–62, 270,271, 273, 275, 276, 278, 281, 283
Tang Maozhi, 21
Tang Shaoyi, 21, 139, 140, 157,
318
Index
169, 182, 183, 210–16, 219, 220, 232, 234, 235, 239, 241, 243, 244, 255-60, 262–64, 266, 267, 274–78, 290 Tang Shouqian, 210, 216
Tang Tingshu 唐廷樞,21,74, 75, 80−
82, 84, 89, 91, 139
Tang Wenzhi, 150, 151, 197,
205, 208
Tao Chengzhang, 224
Tao Xiang, 147, 164
Tenney, Charles D., 98
Tianjin Technical College, 98
Tibet, 4, 156–58, 169, 189, 197, 223,
245, 290
Treaty of Shimonoseki, 92–96, 101 Tsun Wan Yat Po. See Xunhuan Ribao Tung Wah Hospital, Hong Kong, 18, 19,
22, 28, 47, 48, 50, 51, 53, 55, 64, 65 Hospital Committee, 47, 48, 50, 51,
53-55, 64
Twenty-one Demands, 240, 246, 276
Uchida, 153
United States, 3, 4, 5, 22, 31, 34–36, 71,
76, 78, 80, 86, 93, 99, 100, 103–35 passim, 139, 142–46, 153–54, 159, 165-68, 171, 180–83, 186, 189, 194, 203-4, 206, 217, 224, 233, 236, 238, 241, 253, 263, 266, 279, 289, 290, 293
U.S.-China Relations
Chinese Exclusion Laws, 3, 111–16,
129–32, 169, 290
Boxer Uprising, 117–19
Wu Tingfang's views on (1898), 108 boycott of U.S. goods, 153–55, 165-68 urban elites, 137–38, 165, 171, 172, 291
vegetarianism, 128, 155, 183, 233 Venus Life Assurance Company, 234
Wah Tze Yat Po. See Huazi Ribao Waiwu Bu, 130, 133, 140, 145–48, 150,
152-70 passim, 176, 179, 180, 181, 183-85
Walkden, Alice, 23, 67 Wang, Y. C. 146
Wang Chonghui, 217–19, 222, 232, 249 Wang Daxie, 243, 249
Wang Jigao, 199
Wang Jingwei 汪精衛,211,260, 261,
265, 266, 272, 274, 281
Wang Qingmu, 150, 151
Wang Shizhen, 249
Wang Tao E, 1, 24, 31, 34, 37, 76, 78,
81, 287
Wang Wenshao, 98, 110 Wang Yiting, 196
Wang Zhengting EE, 210, 249, 251,
257,258, 263, 265, 266
Wang Zhongsheng, 199 Washburn, W. D. 109
Wei Chengzu, 266 Wei Guang, 22
Wei Yu, 21, 22
Wen Zongyao 溫宗堯,144,189, 197,
201, 202, 205, 207, 215, 218, 226, 232, 275
Weng Tonghe 翁同龢,87,90, 98, 107,
108
westernization, 2, 122, 132–33, 172, 187,
189, 233, 287, 293–94 Westernization Movement (Yangwu
Yundong) 72-74
and overseas Chinese, 35-40 Whitridge, F. W. 161
Wilson, Huntington, 180, 181 Wilson, Woodrow, 251 Wong A-kee, 16
Wood, General Leonard, 131, 132 World Peace Association, 234 World's Chinese Students' Federation,
234
Wu Chaoshu
(C. C. Wu), 6, 28,
76, 236-39, 241, 242, 244, 248, 251, 252, 256, 259, 265, 266, 271, 272,
274, 275, 277, 280–82, 284, 285, 292 Wu Chen (Ng Chan), 29
Wu Jinglian 吳景廉,256-59,272 Wu Nan'gao, 82, 84, 85, 91 Wu Peifu, 243, 263, 275, 278,
281, 283-85
Wu Qiandui, 195
Wu Rongzhang 伍榮彰,26,27,37 Wu Tingfang 伍廷芳
and boycott of U.S. goods, 153–54,
165-68
and Cen Chunxuan, 253-76 passim and Chen Qimei, 198–205, 224–30
passim
Index
and law reform, 35–40, 104–11, 125–
26, 156, 172–79
and Li Hongzhang, 35-40, 71–102 and North China railways, 80-92 and Sino-Japanese War, 93-97
and Sir John Pope Hennessy, 48–67
passim
and Sun Yixian, 217-23, 253-85
passim
and Yuan Shikai 140, 142–52, 180–83,
232-42 passim
as barrister in Hong Kong, 47-48, 49–
67 passim
as interpreter in Hong Kong courts,
29-32
childhood, 26-28
in Nagasaki Incident, 77–80
in post-Sino-Japanese War reforms,
97-100, 104-11
in queue-cutting movement, 186–89 in revolution of 1911, 193–230 in Shang Bu, 144–52
in Waiwu Bu, 152-70
marriage, 28, 76
Wu Yinpei, 174
Xia Yiting, 245 Xiliang, 160
Xing Bu, 134, 169, 170, 179
Xing Zhong Hui, 101 Xinhui, 26, 179, 257
Xu Chengzu, 79
Xu Chongzhi, 281
Xu Run, 74, 75, 142
Xu Shichang, 150–51, 241, 247,
251, 263, 264, 266, 284
Xu Shuzheng, 247, 280 Xuantong Emperor, 252
Xunhuan Ribao (Tsun Wan Yat Po), 24
Yan Huiqing. See W. W. Yen
Yan Xinhou, 85
Yan Xishan, 285
Yang Ru, 101
Yao Rongze, 227, 228, 230
Yen, W. W., 182-83, 185, 195, 279
Youtai, 157
Yu Xiaqing, 196, 198
Yu Youren, 197
Yu Zhijiang, 201, 228, 229
319
Yuan Shikai, 4-6, 71, 118, 133,
134, 139, 140, 142–45, 147, 148, 150–52, 157, 161, 165–67, 174, 180, 181-85, 187, 193, 194, 205, 206–16, 219-28, 231-44 passim, 250, 252, 254, 264, 290-92
Yunnan Army, 254, 255, 271
Zaizhen, 144, 145, 147, 148, 150,
152
Zeng Guofan, 72, 73
Zhan Tianyou, 86
Zhang Binglin 章炳麟,146,217, 255,
258, 260
Zhang Bishi 張弼士,139,149, 179 Zhang Chengyou, 197
Zhang Cunwu, 143, 144, 150, 156, 175,
177, 197
Zhang Jian, 5, 194, 197, 205-7,
210-12, 216, 221–23
Ahang Jinfang, 269
Zhang Nanxian, 260-61
Zhang Shizhao章士釗,273, 274
Zhang Shusheng, 75
Zhang Tianjue, 198
Zhang Wenxuan, 95
Zhang Xun, 6, 245, 251, 252, 255 Zhang Yi, 91, 92
Zhang Yinhuan, 76, 93, 98, 100,
119, 140, 162
Zhang Yintang, 147, 185, 186 Zhang Zhidong, 87, 89, 101,
109–10, 118, 133, 139, 140, 143, 144, 160, 161, 163–65, 168, 170, 173, 178, 180, 190, 194
Zhang Zongxiang, 268
Zhang Zuolin 張作霖,273,280-82 Zhao Bingjun, 237, 250
Zhao Fengchang, 210, 211
Zheng Guanying鄭官應,1,24, 74, 75,
287
Zheng Ruchen, 240
Zhengjiadun Affair, 243, 247
Zhili clique, 243, 254, 273, 275, 280, 281,
284
Zhonghua Huiguan, 34
Zhongwai Xinbao (Chung Ngoi San Po), 24,
29, 66
Zhou Fu, 83–86, 92, 176, 179 Zhou Ziqi, 240
320
Zhu Qiqian, 266
Zhu Qinglan, 268
Zhu Zhixin, 258, 259
Zongli Yamen, 37–40, 78, 79, 93, 97, 98,
99, 104, 107, 108, 110, 111, 118,
133, 151, 163, 191
Zou Lu, 251
Zou Rong, 146
Index
Wu Tingfang (1842-1922)
Reform and
Modernization in
Modern Chinese
History
Linda Pomerantz-Zhang
ભારતી
Hong Kong University Press
139 Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
Hong Kong University Press 1992
ISBN 962 209 287 X
All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher, Hong Kong University Press.
Cover photo reproduced by permission of the Urban Council of Hong Kong from the collection of the Hong Kong Museum of History.
Printed in Hong Kong by Calay Printing Co. Ltd.
This book is dedicated to my father, Samuel Pomerantz,
and to the memory of my mother,
Clara Sarfaty Pomerantz (1911–1980)
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
vii
viii
Introduction
1
Chapter 1
The Colonial Matrix 1842-1877
7
Chapter 2
Hong Kong Barrister 1877-1882
41
Chapter 3
With Li Hongzhang 1882–1896
71
Chapter 4
Promise and Disappointment in America 1897-1902
103
Chapter 5
Wu Tingfang and the New Nationalism 1902-1905
137
Chapter 6
Towards a New Era 1905-1911
171
Chapter 7
Wu Tingfang and the 1911 Revolution
193
Chapter 8
Elder Statesman 1912-1922
231
Conclusion
287
Glossary
295
Bibliography
297
Index
313
Preface
My interest in Wu Tingfang began in the early 1960s when, as a graduate student, I began exploring the history of Chinese immigration to the United States. Wu's striking personality, articulate command of the English language, and effectiveness as a diplomat and public figure all combined to make him an intriguing-even unique-figure, and I was curious to find out more about him. There were at that time almost no scholarly political biographies in modern Chinese history, and I thought that a scholarly biography of such a person―an overseas Chinese educated abroad, a practicing barrister turned railway administrator, diplomat, official and political figure of the late Qing and early Republican period-would be a valuable addition to the field of modern Chinese history.
Originally I hoped to use unpublished papers in the possession of Wu Tingfang's descendants, as preliminary discussions with Wu family members in Los Angles led me to believe that some of Wu's personal papers were held by the family in Hong Kong. Thus, based on my preliminary research and armed with this information, I began my Ph.D. dissertation research on Wu Tingfang's life.
Only later, after a great deal of research had been completed, did I ascertain that the Wu family in Hong Kong had none of Wu Tingfang's private papers, and that, moreover, these papers were most likely all destroyed in a fire that swept the Governor's yamen in Guangzhou in 1922, soon before Wu Tingfang's death.
This study of Wu Tingfang's life by necessity, then, has been researched from Wu's public papers, as assembled from a wide variety of documentary sources, and supplemented by the works of many of the figures with whom Wu was associated during his long life. The result is a political biography of Wu Tingfang as a public figure. It focuses on what he did and thought, as revealed in the documentary sources, and less on his private life and emotions. As such, this biography makes a contribution to the political history of modern China by detailing, as much as is possible from the sources, the emergence in modern Chinese political life of a talented man of overseas mercantile family background with cultural interests and educational training shared by very few of his generation. It seeks to demonstrate the problems as well as opportunities experienced by Wu and others like Wu in the last decades of the Qing Dynasty. Finally, this work indicates the insurmountable problems Wu and his circle encountered in proposing solutions to China's problems in the early Republican period.
vii
Acknowledgements
I am deeply indebted to many friends, colleagues and institutions for their assistance in seeing this study through to publication. This project began as a Ph.D. dissertation at UCLA under the direction of Professors Han Yu-shan, David M. Farquhar (both now deceased), Richard C. Rudolph, John Caughey, and Roger Daniels.
A number of people read all or parts of the manuscript and offered useful suggestions, including Ming Chan, Paul A. Cohen, Britten Dean, Joseph Esherick, Norma Farquhar, Stephen R. MacKinnon, Robert Marks, Ed Rhoads, Art Rosenbaum, John Schrecker, and anonmyous reviewers. John K. Fairbank was especially encouraging and helpful to me at various stages in the revision of this work. I alone am responsible for any errors of fact or interpretation.
The research for this study was undertaken with assistance provided by a Fulbright Fellowship to Taiwan, National Defense Foreign Language fellowships, and a travel grant provided by the UCLA Academic Senate. Postdoctoral assistance has been provided by the California State University Dominguez Hills, Social and Behavioral Sciences Research Award and CSUDH Professional and Institutional Development grants. Additional support for the book's publication has been provided by the CSUDH Foundation.
Staff members of many libraries in the United States, Hong Kong, Taiwan and England were indispensable allies, without whom this work could not have been completed.
In particular, I wish to express my thanks to Charlotte Furth for many years of friendship and support. She, as well as Susan Ko, Sucheta Mazumdar and Honming Yip, have provided constant encouragement. My colleagues at California State University Dominguez Hills have provided collegiality and friendship for the past twenty years, and my husband Dawei Zhang and children Jacob and William deserve my heartfelt thanks for their support and patience.
viii
Introduction
Wu Tingfang's eighty-year life spanned a momentous phase of China's history. Born in 1842 as the Qing Dynasty suffered its first major defeat at the hands of Great Britain, Wu came of age and maturity in a period which saw the decline and eventual disappearance of the Qing Dynasty, in spite of the efforts of Wu and many others to reform and shore up its existing structures. His later years were marked by frustrating, futile efforts to create a modern national political system, but he died in 1922 before these efforts achieved success. His achievements, aspirations and frustrations all reflect China's social and political condition in the modern world, in which the drama of its struggle to maintain its national autonomy while transforming itself into a modern nation unfolds over the counterpoint of the perpetually unresolved debate over cultural identity.
Wu Tingfang was a product of the British colonial venture in Asia. Born to a merchant family in Singapore and raised in Guangzhou and Hong Kong, Wu was educated in missionary schools before going abroad to Great Britain for professional legal training. A pioneer in modern journalism, Wu was the first Chinese to receive British training as a barrister, the first Chinese to practice as a barrister in Hong Kong, and the first Chinese to serve as a member of Hong Kong's Legislative Council. He was thus an example of a new social group that emerged in the Chinese urban littoral in the latter part of the nineteenth century, a group often defined in a non-Chinese colonial context as "colonial intelligentsia."
Along with other intellectuals of the littoral, such as his brother-in-law He Qi (Ho Kai, 1859-1914), Wang Tao (1828–97) and Zheng Guanying (1842– 1923), Wu was an early advocate of institutional reforms. His views reflected a nationalist perspective on China's situation as well as an undisguised admiration for British political institutions, both of which were specific products of the colonial environment in which he functioned, and which is described in some detail in Chapter 1.
From 1877 to 1882 Wu was a key figure in the reform administration of Sir John Pope Hennessy, the Irish-born colonial governor whose program in Hong Kong served as a trial run for his later policies of Home Rule in Ireland. Wu's rise to a position of influence took place in the context of the growth of Chinese economic power in Hong Kong and the continued, often bitter, economic competition between Chinese and western business interests. The propertied Chinese elite of Hong Kong functioned vis-à-vis the colonial authorities much as the gentry-merchant elite inside China did in relation to
1
2
Wu Tingfang (1842–1922): Reform and Modernization in Modern Chinese History
Imperial authorities. Wu's political strength derived from his unique capability, by virtue of his standing as an English barrister, to serve as a go-between between the propertied Chinese and the colonial authorities in a setting in which an expanded consultative role, rather than parliamentary reform, was seen as most productive for Chinese interests.
The most contentious issues were racial segregation and a number of discriminatory measures against Chinese, particularly those that were perceived as harmful to Chinese business and commercial interests. As described in Chapter 2, Wu's experiences in promoting Chinese interests were mixed. His successes were largely due to his ability to influence Hennessy, who was already disposed to accept reforms proposed by the Chinese. But when Hennessy's political position weakened, leading to his removal from Hong Kong, the marginality of Wu's position was painfully revealed. When Hennessy left Hong Kong in 1882, Wu chose to leave the Colony as well.
In 1882 Wu moved to Tianjin and began an association with Li Hongzhang (1823-1901) that lasted until the latter's death in 1901. Wu was one of three foreign-trained men who were the key figures in Li's modernization efforts. Wu was centrally involved in the development of the Kaiping mines and railway system, specifically in charge of raising capital and managing construction for the first major railway system in China. These activities placed him squarely at the center of the Self-Strengthening (or Westernization) Movement.
In light of China's subsequent defeat at Japan's hands in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95, Li Hongzhang's modernizing efforts are generally acknowledged to have been failures, but there remains considerable scholarly controversy over the character of the modernization program and the reasons for its failure.
Wu's experiences under Li as explored in Chapter 3 suggest that although the mufu ("tent government”) innovation provided some measure of flexibility in a rigid and increasingly outmoded bureaucratic structure, it nonetheless relegated unorthodox officials such as Wu Tingfang to positions of relative marginality and dependence upon powerful patrons like Li Hongzhang. Similarly, Wu's experiences in the railway administration show that although the guandu shangban (official supervised-merchant managed) system under which Li Hongzhang's enterprises functioned provided a setting for the utilization of new domestic sources of capital, it ultimately thwarted the success of modernizing ventures because of the parasitic, anti-capitalist values and behaviors associated with the bureaucratic structures in which they operated. Wu's efforts during this period to modernize China's conduct of foreign relations similarly resulted in frustrating limitations. Wu's project to develop a code of commercial law that might eventually result in the abolition of extraterritoriality died for lack of official support, and his efforts to negotiate with Japan in 1886 on the basis of equality met with Li Hongzhang's capitulation in the face of Japan's threats.
Equality was out of the question in the negotiations that took place following Japan's victory over China in 1895. China's disastrous defeat led to widespread
Introduction
3
recriminations against Li Hongzhang, and as Wu was Li's principal assistant in these talks, which led to further loss of sovereignty for China, Wu's reputation and prospects suffered as a result of Li's disgrace.
Wu's career with Li Hongzhang suggests that the move from colonial littoral to a position of rank and prestige inside China was not difficult for a man of Wu's credentials and training, but that as in Hong Kong, this position carried little policy-making power and depended upon the patronage of a powerful sponsor.
In 1896 Wu was appointed China's Minister to the United States, Spain and Peru, a post he took up the following year and kept through the upheavals that started with the abortive reform movement of 1898 and culminated in the Boxer Uprising and subsequent foreign occupation of the Chinese capital in 1900-1901. Chapter 4 deals with Wu's diplomatic activities during this period. Wu was an advocate of a foreign policy tilt towards England and the U.S. at a time when the dominant trend in Beijing was to seek alliance with Russia. Wu hoped to have China take the initiative in proposing an “open door" in trade relations as a means of undercutting extraterritoriality and bolstering Chinese sovereignty, but these views did not prevail at the time.
As the first Chinese Minister with credentials as a “western expert" to serve in Washington, D.C., Wu proved adroit in his ability to reach U.S. public opinion in his effort to influence policy formation with regards to China. His greatest efforts were expended in an effort to redress injustices in U.S. immigration policy towards China, and although he ultimately proved unsuccessful in his efforts to prevent the Chinese Exclusion Laws from being extended to Hawaii and the Philippines, he did succeed in forcing reforms in the implementation of the laws in the continental U.S., and more particularly he succeeded in promoting a national debate on the topic.
Wu's popularity with the U.S. public and familiarity with U.S. policy makers was helpful in the crisis of 1900, in which the U.S. joined the allied expeditionary force and participated in the peace negotiations that followed the occupation of the Chinese capital. Wu sought to influence the U.S. by presenting the Chinese "case" against the destabilizing activities of foreign missionaries; at the same time he hoped to use the U.S. as ally against the reactionary elements in the Qing court.
Intellectually, Wu's sojourn in the U.S. appears to have marked a turning point in his attitudes towards China and the West. Although he had long decried the harmful effects of western missionaries in China, he had formerly held a more optimistic view of the prospects for positive western influences in China's development. Exposure to virulent anti-Chinese prejudice and xenophobic reactions to the Boxers on the part of the American public, however, tempered Wu's earlier admiration for Anglo-American civilization and led to a more pessimistic view of the West's role in China. At the same time he began to develop a positive reevaluation of aspects of Chinese civilization, particularly those he associated with Confucian social and political values. He sought intellectual companionship with American social purity reformers, cultural conservatives whose critical views of deteriorating moral
4
Wu Tingfang (1842–1922): Reform and Modernization in Modern Chinese History
and social standards in the U.S. and espousal of abstinence from alcohol, sex and in some cases, flesh eating, appealed to Wu.
Wu's more critical perspective on contemporary American society and newly softened stance towards Chinese culture was reflected in his rejection of radical political alternatives for China. The anti-monarchical revolutionary movement began in 1895 with Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen) as its principal initial organizer. In 1896 Wu and his brother-in-law He Qi split over the issue of reform, with He Qi declaring that official corruption and incompetence made genuine reform an impossibility under the Qing. He Qi subsequently became a sometime patron of Sun, but Wu Tingfang apparently disdained any contact with the revolutionaries and moreover was indirectly responsible for their persecution abroad when he was Minister to the United States, Spain and Peru.
Wu was also not associated with the outlawed reform organization whose principal figures were Kang Youwei (1858–1927) and Liang Qichao(1873– 1929). Wu admired Kang and Liang; it is doubtful that his admiration was reciprocated. Rather Wu was one of a fairly large number of late Qing officials in the post-Boxer period who functioned within the existing structures in an effort to make them viable conduits for a moderate nationalist program of reform and modernization.
Wu was thus an active participant in the late Qing reform movement. From 1902 to 1906 he held substantive posts in the Board of Commerce, Board of Foreign Affairs, and Board of Punishments. His main contributions to the reform effort were in the areas of foreign policy and law, but in both areas he experienced frustrations as well as achievements.
In foreign policy, Wu sought to utilize the new nationalist organs of public opinion emerging in China's major cities in support of an assertive foreign policy to protect China's sovereignty. He clashed with Britain over China's position in Tibet, and with the United States both over its discriminatory immigration policies and its insistence on Chinese neutrality in the Russo- Japanese War. He clashed both with Britain and America over their railway and mining concessions.
These clashes occurred in a context in which Wu miscalculated the degree to which the Anglo-Saxon nations were prepared to accept China's new nationalism, and the resulting hostile reaction of British and American officials to his activities reduced his effectiveness, in the eyes of the Court, as a foreign affairs official. This perceived weakness, in turn, opened the door to bureaucratic factional intrigues against him which further undermined his position. While Wu's initial appointments into the central government in 1902 had reflected Yuan Shikai's patronage, Wu was not part of Yuan's inner circle and moreover did not have powerful supporters during the post-Boxer period. Wu's frustrations led him to consider resigning in 1904 and again in 1905 when it was clear that his ability to function effectively as a foreign affairs official was impaired. He persisted, however, in the end, because of his desire to complete the massive law reform project that engaged his energies from 1904 to 1906, even as he knew that its prospects for success were in doubt.
Introduction
5
Wu's draft commercial code, issued in 1904, met with only limited success, and was followed by Wu and Shen Jiaben's (1837-1910) proposed judicial reforms humanizing judicial proceedings. These reforms received Imperial support in 1905–6, but were nonetheless largely ignored by local magistrates who continued to use torture to extract confessions and in other ways violate the letter and spirit of the reforms. Finally, Wu and Shen's draft procedural code of 1906, which granted sweeping civil liberties to all Chinese subjects and limited the powers of officials in criminal proceedings, was roundly denounced by most high-level officials as departing too radically from Chinese political traditions; it was never accorded Imperial approval.
Wu resigned from his posts one week after submitting the draft procedural code for Imperial approval, but accepted a new mandate the following year, 1907, to serve a second term as China's Minister to the United States, etc. Shut out by U.S. officials and then by the Beijing Government after the deaths of the Empress Dowager (Cixi) and the Guangxu Emperor (Dezong) in 1908, Wu was recalled in 1909 just as he was negotiating with the Peruvian Government for a treaty guaranteeing protection to Chinese living in Peru. At this point, Wu declined further positions under the Qing Government.
Although Wu was seventy years old, his role in the revolution of 1911 was probably the most important in his life. He was a key figure in the revolutionary take-over of Shanghai and served the revolutionaries as foreign affairs representative, chief Republican delegate to the North-South peace talks, and finally as Minister of Justice in the first cabinet headed by Sun Yixian. Wu led an active, relatively effective campaign to win foreign neutrality and non-intervention in China, and succeeded in mobilizing considerable foreign opinion on behalf of the Republican agenda.
Throughout this period Wu was associated with the Jiangsu constitutionalists led by Zhang Jian, joining them in supporting Yuan Shikai's rise to power. Wu thus used his position in the North-South negotiations to further Yuan's cause in the belief that Yuan's leadership constituted the most stable course for China in the immediate post-revolutionary period. Wu also clashed repeatedly with Chen Qimei(1877-1916), the head of Shanghai's revolutionary government, and sought to temper the new government's radicalism.
In supporting Yuan Shikai nationally and a moderate Shanghai government locally, Wu was motivated both by the desire to avoid any pretext for foreign intervention, as well as by his distrust of the revolutionaries to adequately represent the interests of China's new urban propertied classes. Leadership and political alliance were far more important than the form of government in the short run, but Wu also believed that Yuan's leadership might provide a better guarantee for liberalism in China. As Wu saw it, respect for property and due process in legal proceedings had a better chance of success under Yuan than under the revolutionaries.
In these hopes, however, Wu was soon disappointed. One of his most publicized initiatives was to make two criminal trials with political overtones held early in 1912 into models of liberal jurisprudence. But his enthusiasm for British judicial procedures was not shared by Yuan or other powerful
6
Wu Tingfang (1842–1922): Reform and Modernization in Modern Chinese History
figures of the early Republican period, and his initiatives were not pursued further.
Wu went into retirement in 1912 but was loosely associated with Yuan Shikai. He refrained from any public criticism of Yuan in the latter's moves against the Guomindang, while Wu's son Wu Chaoshu (C. C. Wu, 1886- 1934) served Yuan in a variety of advisory roles during this time. With the announcement of Yuan's monarchical plans in 1916, however, Wu belatedly joined the anti-Yuan movement by publicly calling upon Yuan to resign the
presidency.
Following Yuan's death in 1916, Wu agreed to serve as Foreign Minister in the government formed under Li Yuanhong as President. This government was marked by severe factional struggle between Li and the Prime Minister Duan Qirui. Wu supported Li in this struggle and was appointed Acting Premier when Li forced Duan out of his government in 1917. In one of the many ironic twists characterizing factional politics of the early Republican period, Li then ordered Wu to dismiss the Parliament so as to obtain the support of the monarchist general Zhang Xun. Wu's refusal to dismiss Parliament in spite of enormous pressure and personal threats against his life made him the hero of the moment and greatly added to his stature.
Escaping from Beijing, Wu eventually linked up with the coalition of Guomindang politicians and southern militarists who had established a rump government in Guangzhou under the rubric "Protect the Constitution." Chapter 8 details the complex internal factional politics that dominated the Guangzhou Governments that Wu participated in from 1917 until his death in 1922 and describes the role of the southern governments' key figures in national politics. From his initial position as a possible mediator and peace- maker between the Guangzhou Governments, dominated by Guangxi militarists, and the Zhili militarists in the North, Wu moved gradually towards alliance with Sun Yixian. In 1920 Wu broke with the Guangxi military and civilian factions and formally aligned himself with Sun, remaining the latter's strong supporter in his drive to unify China under Guomindang rule. Wu died, however, one week after civil war erupted between Sun Yixian's forces and those of his chief military supporter, Chen Jiongming.
His stature assured by virtue of his age and reputation as an elder statesman, Wu Tingfang's last years were nonetheless spent in a political environment marked by political factionalism that increased in intensity as the prospects for establishing a viable national government declined. Maneuvering in this futile and demeaning political milieu, Wu Tingfang died at the age of eighty without seeing any genuine prospects either for the unification of the Chinese polity or the modernization of its society.
1
The Colonial Matrix 1842-1877
The Colonial Impact