Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora(1846-1874)

Amoy
B Guiana
burnt
Theresa
Ital
Macao
Callao
put back
15/01/70
Frederic
Belg
HK
Callao
burnt
1/10/70
Nouvelle Penelope
Fren
Macao
Callao
Capt killed
14/10/70
Uncowah
Sal
Macao
Callao
burnt
4/05/71
Don Juan
Peru
Macao
Callao
burnt
3/03/68
Source: Author's compilation
346
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
347
With no official supervision, three of the Cumsingmoon departures did not reach Callao with the fourth needing 190 days to complete her voyage suffering a loss of 14.46% of her coolies. Hong Kong, with strict supervision was not trouble free. The Belgian Frederic caught fire on her way to Callao. Details were not available for the two ships carrying Chinese to Surinam, whereas Duke of Portland which lost 40.72% of her passengers en route to Havana was the subject of a prolonged investigation by British authorities.
Table 18 lists the 47 departures that were reported as having had mutinies that failed. While undoubtedly some were genuine attempts at insubordination, the
the scant information provided in most cases makes it difficult to determine the extent to which they can be classified as mutinies. In each case the vessel continued on its voyage and can thus be classed as unsuccessful.
Table 11.18 Unsuccessful Insurrections
10/03/60 4/11/60 20/11/60
6/06/65
10/02/66
Departed Ship
Flag
From
To
Notes
22/02/60
Messenger American Staghound American
Loa
Peruvian
Macao
Havana
Piracy
Swatow
Havana
High mortality
Macao
Callao
prior departure
Greyhound Chilian
Whampoa
Havana
on departure
23/12/60
Sebastopol British
Whampoa
B Guiana
on departure
18/03/61
Leonidas
American
Whampoa
Havana
3rd mate hurt
4/03/65
Emmanuel French
Macao
Havana
No details
Louis
French
Whampoa
Havana
High mortality
30/07/65
Liguria
Italian
Macao
Callao
High mortality
Dea del
8/09/65 12/10/65
Mare
Italian
Caroline
French
Macao Whampoa
Callao
High mortality
Havana
12 shot
Ville de St
22/01/66
Lo
French
Whampoa
Havana
12 killed
Josefita y
24/01/66
Almira
Flore
Portuvian
French
Macao
Whampoa
Havana
Havana
Pride of the
31/03/66
Ganges
British
Whampoa
B Guiana
Several hurt
on departure
Capt hurt
Eugene et
7/10/66
Adele
French
Macao
Havana
Capt killed
1/02/67
Bangkok
French
Macao
Havana
No details
8/02/67 Niemen
Austrian
Macao
Havana
3 killed
29/11/67 Nelly
French
Macao
Havana
No details
17/12/67 Orixa
French
Macao
Havana
on departure
5/01/68
Esperance French
Macao
Havana
Capt hurt
Departed Ship
Flag
From
To
Notes
Marie
26/09/52 Panama
British
Amoy
12/10/52 Gertrude
British
Amoy
Havana
Havana
crew left ship
1/05/68
Therese
French
Hong Kong
Surinam
No details
poor food
23/07/68
Providenza
Italian
Macao
Callao
No details
Samuel
8/12/68
Lucie
French
Macao
Havana
No details
25/11/52
Boddington British
Amoy
B Guiana
Forestalled
7/02/69
Tamaris
French
Macao
Havana
Lady
Many suicides Ringleaders
29/11/52
Amherst
British
Amoy
8/01/53
Spartan
British
Amoy
Havana Melbourne
crew left ship
19/06/69
Callao
Salvadorian Macao
Callao
flogged
2nd mate killed
Jacques
Isabel
7/04/72
Sevrin
20/02/54 Quintana
Peruvian
12/10/55 Waverly
American
Cumsingmoon Callao Amoy
Callao
Many killed Opium
26/08/72
Fatchoy
French
Spanish
Macao
Macao
Havana
Havana
cruelty cruelty
Samuel
24/11/55 Enderby
Winged
British
Macao
Havana
24/12/55 Racer
American
Swatow
Callao
prior departure
Duke of
2/04/56
Portland
British
Hong Kong
Havana
High mortality
11/03/57
Gulnare
British
Swatow
Havana
3rd mate hurt
4/04/57
Fernandez
French
Macao
Havana
set on fire
4/04/57
Francois 1
French
Macao
Havana
No details
Kate
15/10/57
Hooper
American
Macao
Havana
set on fire
18/10/57
Challenge
American
Swatow
Havana
Over water
26/11/59
Norway
American
Macao
Havana
set on fire
Red Riding
22/01/60
Hood
Kitty
British
Whampoa
B Guiana
Minor attempt
Source: Author's compilation
Of the ten departures from Whampoa, the three which took place towards the end of the Allied Commissioners occupation of Canton (this ceased on 10 October 1861) were suspected of being abetted by the Chinese authorities, while the five on French vessels in the 1865-66 season may have been the reaction to aggressive recruitment by the French Maritime Agency.
French ships accounted for five of the 21 successful mutinies and 16 of 47 unsuccessful insurrections reported. However very few details were ever published and the
20/02/60 22/02/60
Simpson
American
Messenger American
Macao
Macao
Havana
Havana
Piracy
348
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
349
circumstances surrounding these presumed mutinies remain unknown.
In 1857 there were four mutinies and five insurrections. There was only one mutiny and one insurrection in 1859, but by 1860, unsuccesful insurrections had risen to seven with one successful mutiny. Of the 78 departures in 1866, three suffered mutinies which resulted in the ships not reaching their destination and five endured insurrections but were able to land their passengers.
The captains (Table 11.19)
The longest-serving captain in the coolie trades was Captain Antonio de Araucoa. He completed six voyages on the Westward Ho between 1858 and 1863, before she caught fire in Callao after discharging her passengers. After a period in other trades he returned to command the Callao for three voyages between 1871 and 1873 and was in Macao awaiting a further voyage when the trade was closed. Captain de Araucoa was responsible for 6,572 Chinese on his ships and was able to deliver 6,157 of them safely. The mortality rate varied from 1.44% to 26.65% at an average of 6.37%.
Rafael de Moro was the favourite captain of the Canevaro family, serving for eight years between 1864 and 1871. Over seven voyages between Macao and Callao he suffered the loss of the Napoleon Canevaro from a mutiny, and experienced a heavy loss of 30.92% on his voyage on the Luisa Canevaro. Overall, however his mortality rate was 8.07%.
Another long-time Peruvian captain was A.V. Vidaurrazaga. Six of his seven voyages were to Peru on the Figari-controlled Providencia. On his only voyage to Havana, Vidaurrazaga joined the Italia. In Anjer, while taking on provisions, the ship was blown aground while he was ashore and became a total wreck. Captain Viaaurrazago returned to Macao and was immediately returned to his command of the Providencia.
Two other Peruvian captains made six voyages each. Antonio Astorquia was in command of the Camillo Cavour between 1868 and 1872, and Ramon Mota commanded the
.
Fray Bentos between 1869 and 1872. The prominent Garcia family included two well known seafarers. Their first involvement in the coolie trade was on the Amalia in 1855. Narciso Garcia made five voyages between 1868 and 1872 while brother Guillermo made three.
One of the Spanish captains was Ignacio Fernando Yriberri. He was in command of the Hong Kong from 1867 to 1872, and transferred to the Camillo Cavour in 1873. As for the Portuguese captains, the most prominent was E.A. da Souza. He commanded the Donna Maria Pia for five voyages between 1866 and 1871, serving both Cuba and Peru.
Of the French captains, Captain L. Robert would have been the longest serving, commanding five voyages on three different vessels to Havana and Callao. The other known Frenchman was Captain F. Dubois. He was first on the Port Durand in 1865 and then made two voyages to Havana before taking the first contingent of Chinese to New Orleans.
Captain
Joao B Bollo
L. Robert
Antonio
Table 11.19 Longest Serving Captains
Voy-
Primary
Nos
Embark
ages
ship
ed
5
Theresa
876
Nos
Landed
766
Average mortality
10.11
Donna Maria
E'A da Souza
5
Pia
1,669
1504
9.84
Narcisso Garcia
5
Clothilde
3,113
2937
5.53
5
Claire
1,729
1628
5.62
Camillo
Astorquia
6
Cavour
3,746
3004
3.50
Ramon Mota
6
Fray Bentos
2,184
2110
3.43
Ignacio F.
Yriberri
6
Hong Kong
2,254
2,180
3.53
Luisa
Rafael de Moro
7
Canevaro
4,426
3452
8.07
A.V.
Vidaurrazaga
7
Providencia
3,107
2688
11.66
Antonio de
Westward
Araucoa
10
Ho
6,572
6157
6.37
Source: Author's compilation
The Bollo brothers made eight voyages between them in the 1860s. Joao captained the 240-ton brig Theresa while Sebastian was captain of the 1,094-ton ship Theresa. They continued to confuse those in the trade by each commanding
350
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
351
the 357-ton bark Clothilde for one voyage. Joao Bollo had the indignity of having the highest mortality rate of the dedicated captains at 38.17% on the 344-ton barque Amalia before experiencing a loss of just 0.91% on his following voyage on the Clothilde.
Flags utilised (Table 11.20)
168
Ships from 20 nations had engaged in the Chinese coolie trades. They ranged from the one-off voyages of ships registered in Colombia, Mexico, or Sweden to those travelling under the national flags of Britain, Peru and Spain.
The American flag flew on 42 ships, making 51 voyages among them. When the United States banned American ships from participating in the coolie trades, at least 29 ships originally registered in American ports were subsequently employed under various flags, seven of them initially as Peruvian vessels and another nine flying Portuguese colours. Of these nine, six had been transferred to the Portuguese registry in Macao over a two-month period in 1863.
Reflecting the close ties between Peruvians and Italian nationals living in Peru, the Italian flag was prominent in the boom years of 1865 to 1867, mainly for voyages to Callao. Thirteen of those 44 ships had been reflagged from other nations. Seeking a flag of shelter during their war with Spain, Peruvian entrepreneurs turned to San Salvador. At least 35 voyages were made on Salvadorian vessels between 1867 and 1871.
Many of the vessels engaged in the Peruvian trade were employed as shuttle ships, plying between Macao and Callao. The 110 voyages to Callao were undertaken by 85 Peruvian- flagged ships. The number was arguably significantly greater as most of the Italian and Salvadorian-and many of the Portuguese ships were Peruvian-owned. They were flagged in and out to avoid capture, or for financial reasons.
While nationalism was also prominent in Cuba, the strong financial position of the planters was reflected in their ability to secure British and American shipping. When these nations ceased participating in the coolie trade, French
352
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
interests became the predominant suppliers of shipping to Cuba.
Table 11.20 National flags of vessels for voyages to various destinations
Belgian
British
Chilean
1
2 H 5 6 7
To the
West
Flag
American
Austrian
To Cuba
To Peru
Indies
To ports eisewhere
Total
36
12
3
51
3
3
6
4
1
5
36
10
57
22
125
4
6
1
11
Colombian
2
Danish
1
2
Dutch
21
2
1
29
French
106
36
149
German
8
1
11
Hawaiian
7
36
1
44
1
1
Norwegian
4
4
Peruvian
6
104
110
Portuguese
23
15
38
12
2
1
1
16
Salvadorian
4
32
36
82
6
1
89
358
274
63
37
732
Italian
Mexican
Russian
Spanish
ALL SHIPS
Source: Author's compilation
Mortality concerns
2
42L
2 3
2
Not only mutinies, but the high mortality rates suffered on Chinese coolie voyages were also a cause for ongoing concern. As a port of departure, Amoy accounted for most of the voyages experiencing high mortality rates. From 1855 onwards, Swatow also gained a reputation as a port with high mortality rates. Even so, Cuban planters continued to use Swatow, despite the fact that six shipments, in each of 1857 and 1858, had losses in excess of 20%.
Two hypotheses have been put forward as to the causes for the high number of deaths on board--the first relates to the passengers' state of health at the time of embarkation; and
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora 353
the second suggests that the crowded and insanitary living conditions on board ship were to blame.
169
The first hypothesis is supported by the following example. Dr Ely of the Samuel Boddington was very critical of the quality of the coolies being presented to him. He rejected many of them only to be told the ship would be sent away without a full complement if he continued to reject them. Follwing this, he allowed them to pass. The second hypothesis is supported by the fact that the high mortality rate (45.23%) on one of the first coolie ships, the Lady Montague, was attributed to the withdrawal of opium and to dysentery (the latter also claimed some of the crew). Opium deprivation-along with dysentery and scurvy-continued to be the main causes of death for many years.
The competence of the doctors on board would also have had a great effect on the number of deaths. Western doctors would be familiar with the mandatory list of medicines to be carried but the medicines would have been less than useful when native Chinese doctors were allowed to replace Europeans. In either case, many of the doctors seemed to be under a state of intoxication for most of the time.
The coolie master's log of the Forest Eagle's voyage in 1861 does not refer to the doctor's nationality, but shows the complete inability of the man to arrest the outbreak of worms and dropsy that broke out. The captain had to administer medicines himself. Cholera was also a problem, but the high losses on ships out of Macao in 1863 was due to an outbreak of the disease on shore at that time.
The second hypothesis-relating to overcrowding-can be explored by analysis based on the passenger-per-ton ratio. (It would be more difficult to evaluate whether the use of this ratio had better results than the space allocation later adopted by the Portuguese in Macao.)
The difficulty in linking mortality to overcrowding is shown by reference to the 1,650-ton American clipper ship Wandering Jew which left Swatow on 5 February 1858 with 350 passengers. The passenger-to-ton ratio was 0.21, yet only 259 lived to disembark at journey's end. The mortality rate was 26.00%. At the other extreme, the 416-ton Spanish ship
354
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
Serafina left Amoy on 31 January 1860 with 430 passengers, which was more than the tonnage of the vessel. The passenger-to-ton ratio was 1.03, yet 400 were able to walk off after 117 days, a much lower mortality rate of 6.98%.
Space measurements could be interpreted very differently, as shown above, in the case of the John Calvin.
Other factors, such as the duration of voyages and the aftermath of mutinies, would also need to be considered.
There appears to be no study of the comparative mortality resulting when coolies slept in bunks rather than on cold decks. (The latter, it has been speculated, was a cause of death, especially in colder climes.) The Chinese Passengers' Act and the various decrees by Spain, Peru and Macao make no mention of the provision of bunks.
The Colonial Land and Emigration Commission examined the statistics of Chinese emigration to British Guiana in the 1859-60 season. It found that, in the twelve ships of 900 tons and above, the death-rate among 5,312 emigrants averaged 2.4%. In the eight ships of under 700 tons, the death-rate averaged 2.5% on 2,373 emigrants. However in ships between 700 and 900 tons the death-rate was 4.4% on 3,987 emigrants. It concluded that the differences did not warrant them laying down strict rules on vessel sizes.
170
From a quick look at the table, 'Dedicated Coolie Ships' it would seem that the second hypothesis may not hold. The table lists the 27 ships that could be considered as being dedicated to the coolie trades. As dedicated carriers it could have been expected that facilities on board would have been conducive to healthier conditions and thus lower mortality rates. The table shows that eight vessels averaged mortality rates in excess of the average for all other ships engaged in the coolie trades.
The second hypothesis would link ship masters to their ships. Ships undertaking one or two coolie voyages may not have installed all the fittings required for carrying passengers. Ships dedicated to the trade however, would have such fittings on board and their captains should be fully responsible for any unusually high mortality rates. The tables
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora 355
'Longest serving captains' and 'Dedicated coolie ships' do show the value of having ships dedicated to the trade.
Table 11. 21 Mortality by national vessel flag
Table 11.21 attempts to relate the average mortality rates on ships of the various nations using average vessel sizes, average voyage days and the average passenger per ton ratio. It must be emphasized this is not a statistical analysis, and should not be used other than for superficial observation.
Average
Average
Total Average
Passengers
voyage
Flag
American
Austrian
Number
Embarked
tons
per ton
days
Average mortality
51
26221
1134
0.48
112
12.34
6
2,400
705
0.62
147
12.49
Belgian
5
2,680
1004
0.51
109
1.71
British
125
42,908
766
0.48
108
9.09
Chilean
11
2,416
415
0.56
120
16.47
Columbian
2
954
841
0.57
111
8.81
Danish
2
545
719
0.38
127
30.83
Dutch
29
11,459
741
0.53
130
9.89
French
149
51,605
612
0.59
130
10.37
German
11
3,000
539
0.54
121
8.67
Hawaiian
2
249
699
0.18
51
8.43
Italian
44
20,357
900
0.53
131
15.85
Mexican
1
200
237
0.48
144
1.00
Norwegian
4
1,025
456
0.57
134
20.74
Peruvian
110
47,420
801
0.57
114
10.00
Portuguese
38
15,299
718
0.59
115
12.26
Russian
16
7,308
886
0.53
112
8.18
Salvadorian
36
19,340
1063
0.53
117
7.45
Spanish
89
35,757
734
0.57
127
10.03
Swedish
1
341
507
0.67
127
12.90
732
291,484
773
0.52
120
15.12
ALL SHIPS Source: Author's compilation
McDonald and Shlomowitz found that, In the earlier period 1847-65 there was higher mortality on ships departing in summer, and the flag of the vessel, departure port, and length of voyage were important factors. Mortality was lower on British, French, and Dutch ships and higher on Portuguese and Italian ships. They used, as an example, transportation on an Italian rather than a French ship, assuming average voyage characteristics, resulted in approximately 71 extra deaths when 400 passengers embarked.... For the latter period 1866- 74, mortality was lower. There was no significant seasonal effect, but the flag of the ship effect was highly significant. Mortality was lowest on Spanish, Italian, and possibly British ships".
" 171
356 Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
***
Embarking, 1864.
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
357
F
ENVOI
rom conducting this study I have come to a better understanding of why I came across so many Chinese people in the different parts of the world that I visited in the course of my seafaring career. While many of the people I have described here were taken away by force or deception, it seems that most eventually settled in their new country even when there was an opportunity to return home.
Like humanity everywhere, some simply withered away and died, but there were many who, through hard work and frugality, managed to prosper. Some of those who did eventually make their way back home came to realise that they were better off in the new homeland and returned there of their own free will, sometimes with a newly-acquired wife and even home-born children.
The desire of people in poorer countries to improve themselves and the search for labour which complements this will undoubtedly continue through the ages. But this potentially mutually beneficial symbiosis should never cause suffering for any individual in this world.
I trust you have found this book informative and that neither you nor I will ever have to read stories such as those I retell here, about "horror ships".
358
We
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
Appendix I
The coolie master's Log on the Forest Eagle
172
February 9 1861 Ship left Macao with 500 coolies. Mr Boye paid the head coolies, barbers and cooks their money. Some of the cooks were not qualified, and changed them for others. Coolie No. 67 wanted to go ashore after ship left, but he had not the money, and all the sampans had left the ship. Some little disturbance about the rice not being cooked properly, it being the first trial. The coolies were reconciled by being told that it would be better in future.
February 10 Strong breeze - rough sea. Coolies most more or less sea sick. Made them congee and gave them salt fish pickled lemons etc., but would not eat rice and vegetables. Coolie No. 67 is contented today and is about the liveliest of the lot - gave them victuals as usual. Doctor visited the coolies a number of times today. Three men in the hospital one slight fever occasioned by constipation of long standing and gorged liver, one liver complaint, one had sore on the leg.
February 11 Pleasant weather. Coolies most all recovered or are recovering from sea sickness. Gave them food as per memorandum. 150 to 200 coolies on deck most all day. Cooks improving. Rice cooked very well today. Cleaned deck and sprinkled chloride lime between decks. Distributed dominoes cards instruments etc.
February 12 Pleasant weather. Coolies very well and contented. Put three coolies in irons for fighting last night till breakfast time this morning. Gave three others a slight punishment for gambling for dollars and quarrelling. Gave the food as per memorandum. Eight coolies in hospital. None dangerously sick.
February 13 Coolies in hospital about the same. Cleaned deck and aired the coolies well. Coolies not requiring their full allowance of rice. Gave them 600 lbs rice today. No trouble at all with them.
February 14 Heavy sea. Coolies on deck about all day. Gave No. 405 one dozen on the hand for whipping a small boy for no provocation. Put No. 403 in irons at noon having heard something suspicious about him. At night learned that there was a scheme among some of the coolies to poison the Europeans aboard and then take the ship when she makes the land. Also put three others in irons; having been pointed out as the ringleaders. Some more are supposed to be implicated in the plot but have not found them yet. Searched for the poison and found two small bottles of white powder. Do not know what it was. Some of the coolies seasick again today. No. 413 is implicated in the same plot as the others. Coolies that are seasick are getting congee and other light food.
February 15 Rain and light drizzle. Put three others also being connected with those who were put in irons yesterday. At two am. after having asked them to tell where they put the poison, and to confess the plot, which they refused to do, gave them 3 dozen lashes on the back and kept them confined keeping them on rice and water. They still refusing to tell

Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora 359
anything concerning the affairs. At 6 am. one of the coolies informed against No. 67 as being also concerned. Brought him on deck and put him also in irons. On opening the baskets of pumpkins, find them decaying fast. Find it advisable to use them as soon as possible. A few of the men still seasick. Men in the hospital about the same. Cleaned the tween deck thoroughly today - a good proportion of the coolies on deck. All the coolies that are in irons were chosen in Macao for head and cooks.
February 16 Put No. 81 in irons. He also belonging to the same lot that was confined yesterday. No signs of repentance on the part of the prisoners. Gave No. 403 3 dozen for threatening to kill one of the coolies when he got clear of irons - supposed by his threat that he suspected him of informing on them. Cleaned deck thoroughly today, and had a number of the coolies bathing on deck. Coolies in general very quiet. Weather very hot. Seasick coolies recovering. Searched the boxes today for poison and knives found one knife. Four coolies are informed of as having also a plot to heave gunpowder abaft the barricade and thus take the ship. These four are also implicated with the poison plot. They are very suspicious characters. February 17 Two coolie prisoners owned up to the gunpowder plot. No. 403 (who seems to be the head) was very much agitated and was almost frantic with rage on hearing the confession. Cleaned between decks and had coolies bathing in salt water on deck. One coolie pretty sick in the hospital. Gave a coolie a punishment for gambling for dollars and fighting. The onions put on board in Macao are found to be perishing fast. February 18 Land in sight. Anamba Is. Aired the coolies about 75 on deck at one hour spells. Gave two coolies a punishment for fighting. Just one in irons for fighting the same man again on going below after his punishment. Pumpkins very rotten, about three baskets of good out of five. Two baskets onions totally good for nothing. More overboard. Coolies very quiet. Allow the two coolies who confessed the plot full allowance of food, but kept them still confined. Cleaned decks and coolies bathing on deck etc. Sick some are recovering fast, others about the same.
February 19 Coolies quiet. Two or three coolies very sick gave them light food. Deck cleaned thoroughly coolies confined still obstinate as regards confessing the plot. Land in sight. Camels? ...... and other islands. About 75 coolies on deck at one time.
February 20 Cleaned deck and sprinkled chloride of lime below. Rice cooked very well. Got on deck all the sweet potatoes, as it was rather hot for them below. Sick coolies about the same. Coolies yet in confinement. Those that were put in irons for raising conspiracy. One sail in sight. One of the barrels of vinegar was found to have about 3 or 4 gallons in it. February 21 Hot. Land in sight all day. Cleared the deck, gave the coolies bread today instead of vegetables. Very warm below, about 40 or 50 on deck at one time.
February 22 About 20 on the sick list. None very dangerous. Cleaned deck and sprinkled chloride of lime below. Number of coolies washing themselves in tubs on deck.
360 Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
.
February 23 Kate Hooper passed us bound from Macao to Havana. Prisoners yet confined. One man very sick rest not dangerous. Some seasick.
-
February 24 Land in sight. Coolies on deck. Sick coolies recovering fast with exception of No. 8 who is very sick not expected to live. Coolie No. 2 offered $10 as a bribe to liberate one of the instigators of the plot, No. 125, and permit him to go below. Says that there were five kegs full of powder brought aboard in the food at Macao. Put him in irons with the rest. The leader of the conspirators was very agitated when he confessed it. Gave four coolies a light punishment for gambling and fighting for dollars. February 25 Anchored at 11 am. No. 8 died of yellow jaundice and general derangement of the system produced by the use of opium. Buried him. Only four coolies very sick.
February 26 Ship off Anjer at 4 pm. Good breeze and cool below. Four coolies a light punishment for fighting below.
February 27 Opium seems to be almost exhausted among the coolies. Gave them bean soup with a little rice instead of tea at dinner. February 28 No fighting, cleaned decks and fumigated hospital with tar. March 3 Coolies consume 600 lbs rice.
March 4 Distributed tobacco package to each mess today. Coolie No. 2 liberated.
March 5 Report of spies say some talk of liberating the prisoners. Coolie 156 pretty sick. All opium gone.
March 6 No. 156 very sick threw up a number of worms. Some with
mumps.
March 7 No. 156 threw up more worms. Cannot get him to talk. One sick from effects of opium. Doctor sick from the effects of drinking too much rum put on board and meant for coolie use. Cannot attend to his business. Captain took liquor away from him.
March 8 No. 156 improving, doctor sick, prisoners still in irons. Some seasick, all sick sent forward.
March 9 No. 156 same, No. 150 very sick with yellow jaundice. Fresh vegetables below decaying. Advisable to use them as soon as possible, and hold on to the salt and bread.
March 10 No. 156 appeared little better but No. 150 died at sundown from opium withdrawal. Others now appearing sick from same cause as opium all gone.
March 11 No. 261 died from no opium. Doctor improving.
March 12 55 coolies on sick list. One discharged 10 worms. Doctor better. No. 73 covered with venereal sores.
March 13 Gave coolies 705 lbs rice today - largest amount used yet all consumed.
March 14 No. 156 died tonight after dead worms came from his nose. Other opium coolies very bad, others recovering. Overhauled water casks and found some leaking badly. Captain restricts water to 300 gallons and 700 lbs rice and 200 lbs vegetables per day.
March 15 No. 155 jumped overboard, couldn't save him, was a sick opium coolie. Supposed he was crazy.
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora 361
March 16 Coolies stripped and examined and found on the whole pretty clean and not many cases of itch among them. Found 300 gallons water answered very well for all purposes.
March 17 Yams rotting fast. Sick coolies given sago, sweet potatoes etc. March 18 Two released from irons after promising better behaviour. One very bad sick man with dropsy, some with fever. Fish getting bad. March 19 Very cool below. Gave rum in tea with some complaining of belly aches.
March 20 No. 77 whipped and put in irons for stealing $30 from No. 75. He was among the plotters. Refused to say where the money was.
March 21 No. 20 died. Coolies rearranged in bunks below. No. 77 still refuses to say where money is.
March 22 Eggs in barrel broken and rotten. Sick opium coolies given vomitire.
March 23 No. 114 died. Some with mumps. Fresh pork getting rancid and fish decaying.
March 24 Head coolie 286 broken and punished for letting a boy steal opium and then taking it for himself. Made him pay for the opium. No. 64 died from opium withdrawal. A skeleton and sick for some time. Coolies given China cigars, a bundle to each.
March 25 No. 164 died of diarrhoea. Coolies cleaning themselves and shaving. Doctor visited patients. Bean soup instead of tea.
March 28 White-washed below. Boxes searched for opium and pipes and lamps, which were confiscated.
March 29 Below sprinkled with vinegar instead of lime. Coolies fed eggs, and bean broth instead of tea.
March 31 Counted coolies 487 on board. One short, No. 326 who had not been seen for several days. Presumed fallen or jumped overboard. Can't find his contract. Some coolies probably sick from eating too much. Given exercise such as pulling ropes and cleaning decks etc. Cigars distributed. No. 77 released without confessing.
April 1 Passed Cape of Good Hope. Washed coolies mouths with vinegar today.
April 2 Doctor among the sick more often now. Several cases of venereal. April 3 No. 451 jumped overboard and would not take the rope thrown to him. Was in hospital and out of his mind. Told the interpreter that he had died the previous night. No. 6 prepared to drown himself as he had stolen a pipe and when found out could not pay for it. Shackled to a ring bolt. No. 2 accused of sodomy. No. 6 claims he performed the man's part. Both whipped. No. 2 friend of the prisoners and always in trouble. He is only a boy but he is a devil.
April 4 No. 6 given 3 dozen for attempting to drown himself and No. 162 also for threatening to kill No. 6 on shore if he did not pay the $20 for the stolen pipe.
April 5 Coolies counted at 486.
April 6 Ship rolling badly. 2 died today and several pretty sick. All berths thoroughly cleaned.
April 7 Think Doctor could do more for the sick than he does. Capt visited sick twice today, and administered medicine himself. Coolies prefer bean soup to the tea.
April 8 Getting warmer. Doctor gives vomitire to 15, and Capt visits sick two or three times.
April 9 2 more died today, and several very sick. Can't understand why. Hopes Doctor will pay more attention to his business and not try to be the professional gentleman on board a coolie ship.
April 11 Arrived St Helena.
April 12 Water and fresh vegetables purchased. Departed 7 am.
April 13 5 or 6 steady sick cases. Heard some opium purchased at St Helena. Bought from the water tank men. Found and took it away. Fresh cabbage given out and rum put in the water supplied.
April 14 Doctor pays good attention to the men now.
April 18 No. 314 missing. Head coolie 117 found him lurking about at 10 am. night before, took his number and sent him to bed with warning that he would be reported for not obeying instructions. Not seen since. Coolie count 477. Found more opium on No. 400. Doctor administered vomitire to 42 coolies.
April 21 No. 276 bad with worms. Getting warm. Stopped putting rum in the water as it made it sour.
April 22 No. 322 with piles and worms. Doctor amongst coolies all the time now. Think excessive eating is cause of sickness. All except sick look
fat.
April 23 Saw several ships off Ferdinando Noronha.
April 24 No. 383 died suddenly. Not on Doctor's book for a week. April 30 No. 288 died. Was known as No. 300. Found he had swapped cards with a friend. Last of the St Helena vegetables.
May 2 Cooler. Will start giving pork again. Think pork was too heating in the hot weather. May 4
tomorrow.
Killed pig today. Coolies will get fresh pork for breakfast
May 6 35 coolies rather too fleshy! No. 147 threw up 18 very large worms. Three with swelled testicles and dropsy of the bag. Coolies not allowed to eat below as they eat to excess and get sick.
May 10 Big stout coolies placed on diet and exercise. Lazy devils, look like NY aldermen than coolies.
May 13 Lower tier of bunks removed and cleaned the deck under. Stout men not allowed to eat too much and no pork or fish. Bean soup recommended by Mr Souza.
May 14 Fresh pig for dinner today. No. 32 died of dropsy and swelled penis. Land in sight.
May 15 Finished white-washing below. Anchored off Great Isaacs (Bimini Bahamas) at 8 am. Coolies enlivened on seeing land.
May 17 Underway for Havana. Several coolies with swelled penis etc. May 19 Coast of Cuba in sight. Coolies excited. Washing and cleaning themselves. Salt fish and prunes thrown overboard. Opened side ports. Got
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Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora 363
clothes ready for distribution. No. 367 hove up a very large worm and No. 207 all skin and bone with some kind of consumption. Off Moro at 7 am. May 20 Took steamboat tow into Havana at 8 am. New clothes for the coolies. No. 250 died. Captain of Port counted coolies and examined sick. Into quarantine.
May 21 6 died by 4 pm. Awnings spread for the hot weather. Congee for dinner.
May 22 6 more died. Doctors can't determine why.
May 24 2 more died. Ship sent to Mariel in quarantine. Doctors say there is no contagious disease on board. Coolies frightened. Pumpkins sent on board.
May 25 Only 1 died. Coolies not eating much. Fresh vegetables and bean broth.
May 27 4 died of dropsy of the penis and bag. Looks like scurvy. Coolie count 433. Coolies restless. Talk of building barracoon ashore and sick put on a small boat coming from Havana. Hope it would be done soon. Large number on sick list.
May 29 3 died. Doctor neglecting to dress sores. Mr Souza the interpreter does it instead. The doctor is lazy and dilatory.
May 30 Fresh provisions came on board. Potatoes, onions and vinegar for the coolies. Soup of rice and meat for dinner. One died.
May 31 3 died. Raw potatoes onions vinegar given to coolies. All down hearted and need a change.
June 3 No. 408 tried to hang himself - twice. Second time No. 284 made the rope fast for him. Got a licking for that and shackled to a ring bolt. June 4 3 died. Altercation with crewman who struck 2 coolies.
June 5 One died. Permission to build barracoon ashore. Consignee will build it.
June 8 Fresh provisions. No deaths. Coolie count 418. Barracoon being built.
June 9 No deaths. Shore doctors examined coolies. Counted 418.
June 19 No deaths, fresh provisions. Spanish doctors say fresh and good food will bring the coolies back to health.
June 20 Ship to return Havana at expiration of 40 days quarantine.
July 1 Two doctors examined coolies and found no contagion on board, also examined crew. Coolies washing and shaving.
July 4 Man overboard found ashore and brought back. One died. Steamer alongside and took 387 coolies off. Coolies lively and glad to go. Interpreter and Doctor went with them.
No. 39
Appendix II
Summary of Macao Regulations
5 June 1856
173
Regulations for Chinese Emigration at Macao The Governor of the Province of Macao, Timor and Solor determines as follows:
Whereas it is necessary that all practicable measures be taken to the end that, without interfering with the right of Chinese to depart from Macao, those abuses be prevented which might occur in the transportation of such as may embark for foreign countries as Colonists or emigrants, and to unite in one single regulation all the enactments heretofore prevailing in this respect, in order that they may the better come to the knowledge of all, and the Council of Government having been heard, I deem it right to determine as follows:-
Section 1 Concerning Brokers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Brokers will require a license from the Procurador. Brokers to deposit a one year $200 security bond
Any Chinese engaged by a Broker shall produce him at the Procurador's office where he will be informed of the country he is emigrating to, the service entered into, and the conditions thereof; the regulations of the depot and all other circumstances which the Procurador deems necessary, such that the Colonist is thoroughly informed of the obligations he is about to contract. The Procurador shall visit the Brokers' houses from time to time, should he find any who have been kept against his will, is to free him and fine the Broker $100. Any repetition of the offence will result in the withdrawal of his license.
Every Broker who does not produce any Colonist he has engaged within 24 hours in Macao or after arrival shall incur a similar penalty.
Brokers are to repatriate all Colonists who have been rejected by the Emigration Agents, and to pay their passage home. Failure to comply will incur a $30 penalty.
Any Broker resorting to violence or coercion to compel a Colonist to enter his house or depot shall be prosecuted and fined as per Article 4.
Section 2 Concerning Emigration Agents and their Depots.
8.
9.
Emigration Agents are to advise the embarkation location, the number of persons for each vessel and their destination. Each depot is to have a place for sick persons.
10. The Surgeon Major shall from time to time inspect the locations occupied, ensure precautions required for public health are observed; give appropriate instructions as required, and propose measures to ensure public health as well as the good treatment and comfort of the Colonists are met.
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365
11. Medical practitioners appointed in the depots are to report the
method is which they discharge their duties.
12. Emigration Agents are to send a copy of the regulations in their
depots.
13. Contracts shall be registered in the same manner as contracts between Chinese and Christians. Registration is to be before two witnesses.
1.Contracts are to be in Chinese and the language of the
destination country.
2. The Contract must specify the name, sex, age, and native place
of the Colonist.
3.A Colonist must be at least 18 years old or accompanied by his
father or mother.
4.The Contract is to specify the period of engagement, the amount of wages, food and clothing the Colonist is to receive.
14. The Procurador on his visits to the depots is to ascertain whether anyone is being held against his will or being deceived as to the destination of the vessel. Should anyone have been subjected to violence or fraud, he is to be freed at once and the Broker fined. 15. Timely notice by Agents of such compulsory visits are to be
conducted on the evening prior to embarkation.
16. Chinese who have been fully informed prior to contracting before the Procurador are obliged to fulfil the contract, or repay the Agents for expenses if they not wish to proceed to their destination. The daily maintenance cost to be 100 cash.
17. Emigration Agents cannot keep the Colonists imprisoned in the
depots; but may take measures to secure expenses incurred.
18. Emigration Agents are liable to fines of from $50 to $300 for
infringement of any of the rules.
Section 3 Concerning the Vessels on which Colonists are shipped
366
19. No vessel shall leave without being inspected by the Captain of
the Port.
20. The Port Captain shall ensure the sea-worthiness of the vessel, carries the requisite crew and equipment, and sufficiently ventilated for passengers.
21. Every vessel leaving with more than 20 Chinese passengers are
subject to these regulations.
22. No Chinese can board without a passport or a Contract signed by
the Procurador.
23. No vessel is to carry more than one passenger for every one ton
and a half, Portuguese measurement, including crew.
24. The Port Captain is the ensure before embarkation of passengers, that the vessel has water and provisions as defined in Schedule A sufficient for the voyage length as computed in Schedule B.
25. A vessel with more than 20 passengers shall carry a doctor and
medicine chest properly supplied.
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
26. The Captain is to disembark his passengers at the port for which the Colonists are engaged, except in cases specified in the Commercial Code.
27. The Port Captain will ascertain if any Chinese is on board against his will or subject to deception, or without a valid contract. Any such person is to be disembarked and reported.
28. No vessel shall leave without a certificate as per Schedule C
signed by the Port Captain.
29. Any vessel infringing this Act will be subjected to a fine from
$200 to $1000.
30. Consignees of vessels transporting Chinese shall give bonds of $1000 to be annulled on presentation of s legal certificate of arrival and of her having complied with the provisions of this Decree. This Certificate is to be presented within 18 months of sailing under penalty of forfeiture of the bond.
31. All Regulations contrary to this Decree are revoked.
Schedule A
Isidoro Fransicso Guimares Macao 5 June 1856
Schedule of Provisions to be carried by vessels sailing with Chinese Colonists from the Port of Macao.
For each person per diem
Rice
Salt pork, or 2/3 pork and 1/3 fish,
or 1/3 pork, 1/3 beef and 1/3 fish
Salted vegetables
Tea
Firewood
1 1D 2 lbs
0 1D 2 lbs
02 lbs
0 1/3 oz
20 oz
Water at the rate of 13 canadas per week for each person.
1 canada equates to 1.4 litres.
Schedule B
Length of voyage for which provisions are to be calculated for sailing vessels:
As per the British Chinese Passengers' Act of 1855
Schedule C
Captaincy of the Port of Macao
I
Captain of the Port of Macao hereby certify that the vessel (description, nationality, and name), Captain burden, clears from the Port of Macao for carrying
females and
males,
tons Chinese children, engaged
passengers, viz: to serve as Colonists, and that all are aware of the place of their destination, and go of their own free will, which I have ascertained by personal inspection, as also that the contracts they carry have been duly registered in the proper department.
I further certify that the vessel is in a sea-worthy condition for the voyage on which she is bound, that she carries a sufficient number of crew, and that she is supplied with provisions and water in conformity with Regulation of the 5th of June 1856, as also that she has on board a
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora 367
physician, with Medicine Chest, and Chinese interpreter, and that the vessel has accommodation for the passengers she carries, and requisite means of ventilation.
Section 3.
Macao,
18... (Signature of the Captain of the Port) Macao, Government Secretariat 5th June 1856 Jos� Carlos Barros Acting Secretary of Government
by steam.
No. 10
31 March 185717
No. 57
Resolved by the Governor of Macao:
It being necessary to take all practicable measures to the end that in the Depots for Chinese Colonists the provisions of Article 17 of the Regulation of 5 June 1856 be rigorously complied with:
I deem it right to determine that the Procurador of the Loyal Senate shall watch over the fulfilment of all that is enacted in that Article, and that he shall proceed against persons guilty of infringement thereof as culpable of an offence punishable under Article 330 of the Criminal Code.
Isadore Francisco Guimares Macao 31 March 1857
No. 25
4 August 1857175
Resolved by the Governor of Macao:
Considering that all persons, both Chinese and Portuguese embarking as passengers from the Port of Macao, should be subject to the same rule with respect to the holding of passports, and considering moreover that many of the losses and accidents that have occurred to vessels laden with Chinese passengers have been the result of prolonged voyages to which those sailing with the contrary monsoon are exposed, after hearing the Council of Government whose opinion I adopt; I deem it right to determine the following regulations:
Section 1.
Chinese Colonists or emigrants embarking at the Port of Macao after the 31st October shall be required to take out their passports in conformity with the law.
Section 2.
1. Captains of vessels carrying Chinese emigrants shall present the emigrants with their passports before the Portuguese Consul at the port of disembarkation.
Emigration Agents shall be responsible for infringement of this Article, under the terms of Article 30 of the Regulations.
2. No. vessel shall be permitted to sail in the contrary monsoon when carrying more than 30 Chinese passengers. Schedule B annexed to the Regulations shall be taken as the rule whereby to determine at what time the monsoon is to be deemed contrary for voyages
1860176
to the various ports to which Chinese are in the habit of emigrating.
The provisions of this article shall not apply to vessels propelled
Isadore Francisco Guimares Macao, 4 August 1857
Regulation for the shipment of Colonists 30 April
Resolved by the Governor of Macao:
Whereas it is necessary to adopt in the regulations with respect to Chinese emigration from the Port of Macao some of the provisions that have been enacted by the authorities at Canton, to the end that in this Colony there be followed a system as nearly as possible similar to that which the aid authorities have deemed proper for the purpose of securing the liberty and good treatment of the emigrants. Having heard the Council of Government, I have seen fit to determine as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The office is created of Superintendent of Chinese emigration, who shall be nominated by the Governor, and who shall be responsible to him for the execution of the regulations and other matters concerning the exportation of Chinese labourers engaged to emigrate to foreign countries.
The Superintendent of Chinese emigration shall draw a fixed salary from the Government and shall not receive any emolument depending upon the greater or less number of Chinese colonists embarking at Macao.
The Superintendent shall have under his orders an interpreter of Chinese, paid like himself by the Government, and who also shall receive no other fees.
The Superintendent shall be present at the examinations held at the Procurador's office in conformity with the Regulations of 5 June 1856, and shall sign the contracts in the same manner as is done by the Procurador.
Both the Superintendent and the Procurador shall keep a register, in which they shall enter the names of all Chinese coming before them to emigrate.
In this Register in addition to the name shall be entered the age, native place, employment and condition of the Chinese proposing to emigrate.
On Chinese presenting themselves when about to emigrate, there shall be given to them a copy of the contract and they shall be registered in the form laid down in the preceding article; and all explanations shall be made to them with reference to the contract offered to them, but they shall not be allowed to sign until the expiry of at least six days after registration.
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Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
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369
370
8.
9.
During the time between the registration and the signing of the contract the Chinese registered shall be allowed to return to their homes or villages, or to reside in the depots, which they shall be allowed to enter and leave whenever they please (during the day) without any right on the part of the Emigration Agent to detain them or to require them to pay for their maintenance, clothing, travelling, expenses, or any other outlay prior to their signing their contract.
If the colonist presents himself on the expiry of the six days specified in Article 7, and states that he decidedly wishes to engage himself, the contract shall again be read and explained to him, and he shall then sign it, as well as the Superintendent and the Procurador, with two witnesses.
10. On the contract being signed, there shall be paid to the colonists the gratuity or advance made to them by the Agent, and they shall be sent on board the vessel that is to carry them to their destination.
11. The amount of the gratuity or advance received by the colonist must be noted in the contract, and delivered to him in the presence of the Superintendent.
12. No Chinese below the age of 25 shall be allowed to sign the contract unless he has obtained the consent of his parents if they are still living.
13. After having signed the contract, the colonist is bound to fulfil same, or, in case of change of mind, to repay the expenses lawfully incurred by the Agent, in conformity with Article 16 of the Regulations of 5 June 1856.
14. The advance paid to the Colonist and clothing given to him shall be considered part of the lawful expenses he shall be called upon to pay if he refuses to sail after signing the contract.
15. The contracts which Emigration Agents propose to enter into with Colonists must be previously laid before the Superintendent of Emigration, who will examine them and approve them if they are just and equitable, admitting no conditions that may be injurious to the Colonists.
Section 1
The Contracts shall not be for a longer period than eight years. Section 2
Colonists shall not be allowed to renounce the benefit of the legislation in the countries for which they are engaged. Section 3
On the expiry of the period of eight years, Colonists shall be free to dispose of their own services, no debt they may have contracted being allowed to serve as a pretext for prolonging the time of their engagement. Such debts must be recovered by process of law.
Section 4
Contracts shall be written in Chinese and in the language of the country to which the colonist is emigrating. Section 5
Foreigners engaging colonists shall bind themselves to afford them every means for communicating with their families in China, and for remitting to them such monies as they may wish and be able to send.
16. Certain days shall be appointed by the Superintendent, in concert with the Procurador, for the appearance of intending emigrants at the latter's office, as also for the signature of the contracts. 17. Chinese wishing to emigrate shall present themselves at the Procurador's office to be registered, both by the Procurador and the Superintendent of Emigration, who will note in their respective books the depot to which the colonist is going until he signs the contract, and, in case he returns to his own home, the name of the Agent with whom he proposes engaging himself. In thus appearing, the colonists must go unaccompanied by the employees of the depots and by the Brokers.
18. There shall be fixed in the depots, both on the outside of the doors, and in different parts of the interior, the contracts and regulations of the Establishment, both in Chinese and Portuguese. 19. The internal regulations of the depots shall be submitted to the
approval of the Superintendent of Emigration.
20. The depots shall be open from 8am until 4pm in order that all the relatives and friends of the colonists who choose to visit them may enter.
21. The Superintendent of Emigration shall visit the depots and vessels of the colonists from time to time, and shall muster the colonists in order to prevent any from embarking unless they have signed the contract, as provided in Article 9.

Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora(1846-1874)

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