Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora(1846-1874)

Ratio
Days
Landed Died
1849
1
75
0.17
139
75
0
1850
5
1,400
0.67
140
669
52.21
1851
3
1,163
0.6
124
800
31.21
1852
6
1,760
0.7
134
945
46.31
1853
6
2,070
0.64
125
1854
5
1,691
0.73
130
586
1855
13
6,694
0.52
107
5,127
1,739 15.99
65.35
23.41
1856
5
1,786
0.59
132
1,603
10.25
1857
3
1480
0.55
100
1001
32.36
1858
1
300
0.4
180
260
13.33
1859
3
947
0.69
141
680
28.19
1860
8
2,552
0.38
108
1,913
25.04
1861
7
2,240
0.52
156
1,535
31.47
1862
4
1,359
0.46
104
1,277
12.47
1863
10
3,740
0.51
106
3,349 10.45
1864
21
6,315
0.54
107
5,587 11.53
1865
22
9,037
0.56
107
7,030 22.21
1866
19
7,681
0.5
124
6,138 20.09
1867
12
5,848
0.48
120
4,638 20.69
1868
8
3,373
0.51
121
2,875 14.76
1869
10
4,835
0.51
106
4,733
2.11
1870
29
12,730
0.54
107
10,855 14.73
1871
25
11,494
0.53
107
9,695 15.65
1872
31
13,800
0.56
114
12,390 10.22
1873
13
7,170
0.56
110
1874
4
2,371
0.54
97
Total
274
113,911
0.53
110
6,352 11.41
2,339 1.35
94,191 17.31
Source: Author's compilation
Under the Chinese Passengers' Act, ships bound for the West Coast of America south of the Equator were required to carry sufficient provisions for a voyage of up to 120 days throughout the year. In the "off" season, vessels making for Callao could use the southwest monsoonal winds to carry them northwards towards Hawaii or Japan before taking advantage of the Kuro Siwo current to North America and then the California current southward.
During the northeast monsoon, captains could choose the southern route to Anjer in the Sunda Straits before continuing
334 Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
�
T
0
south to Australia, and then use the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and the strong westerlies that blow in the roaring forties to speed them to Callao. Alternatively, the captain could choose to sail across the Timor Sea, down the east coast of Australia and New Zealand, before joining the South Pacific Current. This route of approximately 11,000 miles would have been more than 1,000 miles longer than the northern alternative.
The fastest passage was 61 days, made by the Peruvian ship Rosalia under Mexican Captain E. Dias, which left Macao on 2 July 1873. The American clipper ship, Winged Racer, under Captain Gorman, had previously held the record of 68 days since 1855. The longest time taken was by the Petronila. Stress of weather caused her to seek repairs in Honolulu twice before eventually arriving in Callao 217 days after leaving Macao. The average voyage time over all three routes was 114 days.
Peruvian Consignees and their Agents (Table 11.12)
The Peruvian entrepreneur Don Elias made an experimental voyage in 1849 and five shipments in 1850. Nearly all the ships suffered casualties and there was a mortality rate of 18%. There were several mutinies, associated with the terrible conditions on board. Once this was known, the resulting outcry caused the world permanently to associate Chinese coolies with the horrors of the guano trade and to give Elias a lasting terrible reputation. He re-entered the trade in 1870 with two more shipments, but not for the Chinchas. His friend Jos� Sevilla began shipping Chinese men to mainland Peru in 1851 (no more Chinese men were shipped to the Chinchas after Elias) and continued for three years during which he undertook 13 voyages taking on 4,766 in all.
Canevaro in conjunction with Emilio Althaus was the biggest importer of Chinese labour. They employed 50 vessels between 1857 and 1864. Most of the vessels were owned outright and dedicated to the trade. Of the 22,920 Chinese embarked, nearly 90% of them were able to land in Callao.
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
335
Table 11.12 Peruvian Consignees and their Agents (1849-1874)
Consignee Agent
Active
Years
Ship-
ments
Embarked
Landed % Died
Elias
Jorge
1849 - 70
8
2,127
1,353
36.39
Sevilla
Unknown
1851-53
13
4,756
3,336
29.86
Alson
Robinet
1852-53
2
500
426
14.80
Robinet
Robinet
1854-55
6
2,185
1,183
45.86
Ugarte
Olano
Armero
1857 - 74
25
11,790
10,104
14.30
Canevaro
Landabaso
1863 - 74
40
19,395
16,308
15.92
Garcia
del Rio
1863 - 70
7
3,046
2,770
9.06
Althaus
Armero
1864 - 73
14
5,102
3,922
23.13
Leathold
Figari
Tuton
1864 -74
25
9,173
8,662
5.57
Pardo
Pastor
1864 - 68
4
2,422
2,166
10.57
Maritima
Pearce
1865 - 73
29
15,702
14,716
Various
Various
1865 - 74
51
19,102
6.28
15,774 17.42
Unknown
Unknown
1852 - 74
50
18,611
TOTAL
274
113,911
13,471 27.62
94,191 17.31
Source: Author's compilation
14
The number of men embarked on each ship to Peru averaged 414, ranging from a low of 75 on the first ship to 593 in the final year of importations. The load factor on ships bound for Peru ranged from 0.02 to 1.20. Mortality rates ranged from 0.00% to 75.56% in 1852 when the load factor was 0.64. Mortality rates however, cannot be attributed solely to overcrowding. In 1850 the average load factor was 0.77, with the mortality rate showing 58.21%, whereas in 1853 the load factor was 0.73, but the mortality rate was 16.54%.
The other long-term participant in the trade was Ugarte who commenced operations in 1861 and based himself in Macao for a few years. Sometimes in conjunction with Santiago, he undertook 21 voyages, on which 9,558 Chinese labourers and servants were embarked. The success rate was similar to Canavaro's: nearly 90% landed safely in Callao. Ugarte was still active when the coolie trade was banned in 1874.
A company formed for the specific purpose of conveying Chinese colonists to Peru was the Compania Maritima del Peru. It bought its first three ships in 1865 and was active
until the traffic was banned. On the 28 shipments the company made, 15,022 men, women and children were conveyed to Callao. There were only 959 deaths on the way giving the company a mortality record of 6.38%.
The figure was only bettered by another long-term participant in the trade. Figari and sons (there was at least two sons, Antonio and Juan), engaged 24 ships to take on 8,757 Chinese for Peru, of whom 501 did not complete the journey. The overall loss rate was 5.72%, the best in either the Cuban or Peruvian trades.
Smaller shippers included the Garcia family, Pardo and Cadamo. On the four Zaracondegui ships the loss rate was 24.65%, while Pratolongo, who had a ship named after him, suffered a loss of 29.90%.
On the 102 shipments between 1852 and 1874 where the consignee was not identified, 39,085 Chinese were placed on board but only 29,525 were able to walk ashore. The average loss rate on those ships amounted to 24.46%.
Coolies returning from Peru
Return passages from Peru were at the expense of the "colonos".
" 156
Chinese returnees from Peru were first recorded when on 8 November 1865 the Luisa Canevaro brought 22 men back to Hong Kong. There was only one arrival with 20 on the Camillo Cavour in 1869 and two in 1870 with 43 men. In 1871 there were three ships bringing 131 Chinese back. In 1872, four ships disembarked their 68 passengers in Hong Kong while the San Juan went directly to Macao with an unknown number of Chinese returnees.
In his Annual Report for 1872, Hong Kong Harbour- Master Thomsett highlighted the contrast between Cuban and Peruvian returnees, mentioning two vessels bringing 58 Chinese back from Havana and 26 vessels arriving from Callao but only bringing 68 back. In 1873 however, the situation had somewhat improved with five vessels bringing 92 Chinese indentured labourers back from Peru.
No further returnees were recorded again until 1877, when the 173-ton Nicaraguan brig, A. P. Christina, brought 40 Chinese back from Peru on 31 July 1877 and another 29
336
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora 337
on 3 December 1878. This was followed with another 141 males and the first two female returnees on the Belgian Perusia. The Elvina Dovale brought back 151 in 1881, including one female and 17 children, while the Peru returned another 140 Chinese in 1890. Between 1891 and 1894, the 480-ton British Omega brought back 116 men, women and children, while the Italian 794-ton clipper, Lothair, carried another 839 men, women and children. On the Lothair's last voyage, 264 rushed to board her in an effort to get home before the Chinese New Year. Unfortunately, 55 of them died on the passage. When asked to comment on the large number of deaths, Captain Schiaffino simply replied "of old age" 157
The West Indies (Table 11.13)
Shipping to the West Indies was characterised by the diversity of destinations, variously under British, French and Dutch rule.
Between 1852 and 1854, eight British ships were despatched to British Guiana, Trinidad and Jamaica. There were also two sailings from Panama taking stranded Chinese to Jamaica. Shipments ceased in 1854, on the grounds that the cost of shipping was too high.
Then, between 1858 and 1866, there were 48 sailings to the West Indies, carrying 17,726 Chinese. These totals include three sailings to Surinam and two shipments for the French West Indies from Whampoa.
The resumption of British shipping in 1858 was initially from Macao where Dutch Surinam had undertaken two shipments earlier that year. One shipment was undertaken in late 1858 followed by a second in early 1859. When the Chinese then condoned emigration from Kwangtung, British officials opened a recruitment depot in Canton with ships taking on migrants from both Hong Kong and Whampoa.
When the Kung Convention imposed unacceptable conditions for emigration, British shipments ceased in 1866. However shipments to Surinam were resumed in 1867 with four sailings, this time from Hong Kong.
338
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
A trial shipment of mainly non-contracted emigrants to British Guiana was conducted from Hong Kong in 1878, another to Antigua in 1881 and a further one to Jamaica in 1884. Those shipments have not been included in this study.
In all 21,845 Chinese were taken to the West Indies. The 63 ships involved were able to land 19,687, with an average mortality rate of 9.88%. The high rate of 24.11% in 1866 was distorted by the only successful mutiny on a British West Indies-bound ship.
If we discount the 480 men who were on that ship, the mortality rate for 1866 would be 1.66%. Two other factors would have contributed to the lower mortality rates to the West Indies. The generally larger ships and resulting lower passenger tonnage ratios would have helped, as would the rather shorter times needed to reach their destinations.
1852
Table 11.13 Shipments to the West Indies, 1852-1873
mm "
No. of
Shipments
No.
Embarked
No. of
Passengers
Average
Voyage
No.
%
Per ton
Days
Landed
Died
5
1,510
0.45
121
1,330
11.92
1853
2
664
0.47
109
305 54.07
1854
3
517
0.62
120
472
8.70
1855-
0
1857
1858
1859
3
800
0.39
108
800
6.13
3
1,188
0.51
108
1,153 2.95
1860
1861
8
2,633
0.44
103
2,406
8.62
10
3,498
0.37
103
3,350 4.23
1862
6
2,625
0.39
93
2,469
5.94
1863
2
930
0.43
79
905
2.69
1864
2
590
0.45
97
582
1.36
1865
9
3,356
0.41
102
3,059
8.85
1866
5
2,103
0.41
77
1,596
24.11
1867
1
291
0.46
83
270
7.22
1869
3
752
0.38
112
651
13.43
1873
1
388
0.32
62
388
0
63
21,845
0.41
97
19,687
9.88
TOTAL
10
5 5
Source: Author's compilation
The fastest voyage to the West Indies was undertaken by the Corona in 1873. Captain Bate took 62 days only on the 12,669 mile voyage to British Guiana. The 351-ton Lord
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora 339
Elgin, under the unfortunate Captain M'Clelland, took 178 days the longest time of any-and the voyage also took 168 lives. The average voyage time was 97 days.
In their haste to recruit Chinese labourers, the British Guiana plantation owners sent the Lord Elgin to China without adequate representation. It was left to Captain McClelland to decide who would be his agent. He chose James Tait. James White arrived in China on 10 October 1852, but had no authority to override the Tait appointment which White thought presented Tait with a conflict of interest as Tait was also representing Cuban importers. James White assumed responsibility after the first four shipments and arranged for another four, including the aborted voyage of the Emigrant in 1853.
Committee
Thomas Gerard was a West India appointment who conducted two shipments before being superseded by J. Gardiner Austin in 1859. With failing health, Austin handed responsibility to Sampson who moved the Agency from Hong Kong to Canton.
The French and Dutch Governments chose to appoint third parties to arrange their Chinese requirements.
Agent
Table 11.14 Emigration Agents for the West Indies, 1852-1869
James Tait
James White
Thomas Gerard
J. Gardiner Austin
Principal C LEC
Colonial
Active Year(s)
Number Recruited
1852
1,256
C LEC
1852 - 1854
1,228
West India
Committee
1858 - 1859
761
Governors
1859-1862
7,805
Colonial
Governors
1862 - 1873
6,963
French
Government
1859-1860
781
Dutch
Unknown
Government
Others
1865 - 1869
2,344
1854 - 1858
707
Source: Author's compilation
Theophilus Sampson
Gastel, Malavois & Assier
Immigratie Maatschappij
Coolies returning from the West Indies
As in the case of Cuba and Peru, return passages were not offered to Chinese coolies. With no ships having returned
directly to China, little is known of how many, and when any migrants returned from the West Indies. However, two Chinese paid for their own passage from Trinidad to Calcutta on the Scindian which left on 1 June 1855. On 10 December 1858, another three Chinese left on the Morayshire for Calcutta.
158
159
The Clarence took just one fare paying Chinese passenger from British Guiana to Calcutta on 3 September 1865. Then in September 1869 the Ganges sailed from British Guiana for Calcutta with three Chinese men, four Chinese women and one child. They travelled as cabin passengers who had paid their own fares to Calcutta. The head of the household was said to have deposited �333 6s 8d for transmission to India and had �833 in cash on him. He also held a letter of credit to the value of �33 to defray his expenses from Calcutta to Canton.160 Also in 1869, five Chinese left Trinidad as cabin passengers on an unnamed ship. They were returning to China with a sum of $7,500 or �1,562 10s, equal to �312 10s each. They had expressed an intention of returning to Trinidad.161
In September 1870 the Ganges sailed once more from British Guiana, this time with 421 returning emigrants including ten Chinese.162 However, a later report says the
number was 407 exclusive of 14 Chinese who were embarked
on the vessel.163 On 22 September 1870, the Wellesley also sailed for Calcutta with one Chinese family of 15 persons who paid their own passage. They had �666 13s 4d between them.
164
165
Then on 19 October 1872 the Rohilla departed British Guiana with 58 Chinese who had �1,416 13s 4d in cash, and on 19 October 1872 the Enmore left 80 Chinese who took The Chinese paid their own passages on away �6,312 10s. both vessels. There were no Chinese from Trinidad that year.
The Annual Immigration Reports of British Guiana tabulate a total of 152 Chinese legally leaving the Colony for China between 1880 and 1905.166 They would have done so by way of New York and San Francisco or via Montreal and Vancouver. The Annual Immigration Reports of British
340
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
I
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
341
Guiana tabulate a total of 152 Chinese legally leaving the Colony for China between 1880 and 1905.
The Ships
167
Of the 732 voyages undertaken in the Chinese coolie trades 19 were by brigs, and 240 by barques. Voyages were undertaken by 391 ships with another 54 by what were known, sometimes loosely, as clipper ships. (Table 11.15) Steamers of the time were usually ships with small steam engines to provide propulsion when adverse wind conditions prevailed. Twenty-six auxiliary steamers were used in the trade to Cuba. There were also two small schooners which transported distressed Chinese coolies from Panama to Jamaica.
Of the 732 sailings identified in the various trades, 396 were undertaken by ships on a one-off opportunist basis. Sixty-five ships made two voyages, and 17 made three voyages each. With voyages to Peru and Cuba taking in excess of three months in each direction, it was unusual for any ship to undertake more than one voyage a year.
Twenty-seven ships can be considered dedicated coolie ships, having made at least four coolie voyages. (Table 11.16) Of these, ten made their first voyages in the boom year of 1866. Between them they made 151 voyages to Cuba and Peru. Only one British ship, the Red Riding Hood, made four voyages to the West Indies (between 1860 and 1865). Ten other ships made four voyages each. They were the Spanish ships, Alavesa and Guadalupe, travelling exclusively to Havana; the Portuguese Cecilia, and Italian R Pratolongo each travelling to Callao only, while the French Claire and Dutch Onrust called at both Havana and Callao. The four other ships were Peruvian controlled but sailed under various flags. They included the Lola, Peru, Dolores Ugarte and Macao.
Table 11.15 National flags used by ship type with tonnages
Average tons American
British
Brigs Barques Schooners Ships Clippers Steamers Total
Minimun tons 168
Maximum tons 391
270
191
1278
73 342
147 2078
520
1081
2006
2134
489
110 859
1314
1394
0
2
0
27
22
0
51
31
2
87
1
3
125
French
1
93
0
47
0
8
149
Spanish
3
33
0
41
0
12
89
Portuguese
1
8
27
0
38
Peruvian
4
30
0
65
11
0
110
Italian
Salvadorian
6
0
28
8
2
44
2
0
26
36
Dutch
Russian
13
0
16
29
2
0
14
0
16
Austrian
3
0
6
1
3
1
5
Chilean
6
2
3
0
11
Colombian
0
2
Danish
0
1
1
0
0
2
Mexican
1
0
0
0
0
1
German
0
9
0
11
Noregian
4
0
4
Hawaiian
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
Swedish
0
0
0
0
1
Total
18
241
2
391
54
26
732
Belgian
Source: Author's compilation
run
Five ships made five voyages each. The two ships sailing exclusively to Havana were the Spanish barque Altagracia and the steamer Cataluna-the only steamer to continuously from 1866 to 1871. The Peruvian Empresa traded exclusively to Callao, as did the Uncowah sailing under the Italian and then Salvadorian flag. The Aurora sailed primarily to Callao, but made one voyage to Havana.
The Emigrante sailed under the Portuguese flag for one voyage before completing another five under Spanish colours to Havana. The Salvadorian Callao made six voyages between Macao and Callao between 1869 and 1873.
The Westward Ho made one voyage to Callao as an American clipper, before she was bought by the Peruvian
342
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
343
entrepreneur Juan Ugarte in 1858 and placed under the Peruvian flag. Her one voyage to Havana was followed by another six to Callao before she was wrecked discharging her passengers there.
Table 11.16 Dedicated Coolie Ships
after
%
Passengers
Ship
Tons
Voyages Embarked
per ton
Landed
Died
Red Riding
Hood
709
4
1,281
0.45
1,270
0.86
Lola
890
4
2,041
0.57
1,007
1.67
Cecilia
533
4
1,498
0.70
1,434
4.27
Claire
498
4
1,151
0.58
1,096
4.78
Macao
1076
4
1,744
0.41
1,647
5.56
Guadalupe
913
4
1,646
0.45
1,543
6.26
Alavesa
689
4
1,614
0.59
1,453
9.98
Peru
594
4
1,597
0.67
1,425
10.77
Onrust
836
4
1,865
0.56
1,621
13.03
R Pratolongo
890
4
1,825
0.51
1,508
17.37
Dolores Ugarte
1283
4
2,380
0.46
1,821
23.49
Aurora
668
5
1,867
0.56
1,752
6.16
Cataluna
1300
5
2,532
0.39
2,296
9.32
Empresa
446
5
1,724
0.77
1,546
10.32
Altagracia
618
5
1,804
0.58
1,580
12.42
Uncowah
988
5
2,526
0.51
2,188 13.38
Callao
1552
6
4,037
0.43
3,816
5.47
Emigrante
753
6
2,173
0.48
2,047
5.80
Hong Kong
470
7
2,147
0.67
1,806
15.88
America
1454
7
4,702
0.46
4,448
5.40
Westward
Ho
1633
7
5,380
0.41
5,008
6.91
Donna Maria Pia
671
7
2,518
0.54
2,283
9.33
Luisa Canevaro
1206
7
5,018
0.59
4,483
10.66
Fray Bentos
561
8
2,866
0.64
2,780
3.00
Encarnacion
567
8
2,547
0.56
2,098
17.63
Providencia
660
10
4032
0.61
3,888
3.57
Camillo Cavour
1334
12
7,596
0.47
6,464
14.90
Average of all
other ships
738
577
382
0.55
337
Source: Author's compilation
11.28
The Portuguese Donna Maria Pia was another American ship, bought in the general exodus of American ships from the United States. As a dedicated coolie ship, she made seven voyages to Callao and Havana. The Luisa Canevaro was yet
344
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora
another American ship. Bought by the Peruvian Canevaro family, she flew various flags in her nine-year history, undertaking seven voyages to Callao and Havana.
The America was originally the British ship, Red Rose. She was bought by the Peruvian Maritime Company especially for the coolie trade. She also carried various flags in the course of her seven voyages to Callao and Havana. The Hong Kong started her career as a dedicated coolie carrier on a sad note, having succumbed to a mutiny on her first voyage in 1866 as a French carrier. She then changed her flag to that of Spain, when trading to Havana. When she switched to servicing Callao, she changed again to the flag of Peru.
The Encarnacion was a Spanish barque which entered the coolie trade first in 1853. After just one voyage to Callao in 1860, she returned intermittently to the Cuban trade during the period from 1861 to 1871. Over her eight voyages she carried 2,547 Chinese with an average loss of 4.91%. The Fray Bentos was a much smaller vessel. She made eight voyages between 1866 and 1872 over which she carried 2,866 Chinese coolies. With a loss of 86 passengers her mortality rate was 3.00%.
The Providenza was a stalwart of the Peruvian coolie trade. After she changed her registry in 1869 to that of Italy the spelling of her name also was changed, to "Providencia . Beginning in 1865 and concluding in 1873, her ten voyages embarked 4,032 coolies in all, her average mortality rate being an impressive 3.57%.
The Camillo Cavour was the longest-serving ship in the coolie trades. Captain Caravagno, having served on the Empresa and Westward Ho, took command of the American- flagged Challenger when her name was changed and placed under the Peruvian flag in 1863. Between 1864 and 1867. Captain de Landabaso was in command for four voyages, first as a Peruvian ship and then, for the next three years, as an Italian one. In 1868, another change of flag took place, this time to that of Salvador. At this point, Captain Astorquia took command and remained there for the next four years and six voyages, seeing the ship revert to the Peruvian flag in 1870, when fears of a war with Spain were finally allayed. Camillo
Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora 345
Cavour's twelfth and last voyage was under Captain Ignacio Yriberri in 1873. Over her long career she took on 7,596 Chinese and carried 6,464 of them on to Peru. The mortality rate was 6.58%.
Mutinies
Throughout the 29 years when the coolie trades were in prosecution, mutinies were regularly reported in the newspapers of the world. (Tables 11.17 and 11.18) Mutiny is a strong word and not always an accurate description of what happened on board ship. In this study, out of the 732 sailings from all ports and to all destinations, 68 what we may call "insurrections" of varying degrees of severity have been identified. In other words, about one in ten sailings resulted in this type of disruption of the normal voyage. Of these "insurrections", 21 (30%) resulted in the ship not making its final destination.
The first successful mutiny in the coolie trades, which took place on the French Albert in 1850, was said to be in reaction to a cruel captain. The last mutiny, on the Fatchoy in 1872, was also a result of cruelty to the Chinese coolies. Cruelty by the captain was also the significant driver in the mutiny on the American Robert Bowne when, as in the case of the Albert, they began cutting the pigtails of the men on the grounds of cleanliness. In retaliation, the captains of the Albert and the Robert Browne were attacked, killed, and thrown overboard. In the case of the last two unsuccessful "insurrections" on the Jacques Sevrin and Fatchoy, both in 1872, cruelty was once again identified as the motivating factor.
An early factor in insurrections was also the quality and quantity of food and water granted to desperate men, almost all of whom were opium addicts, who had simply been picked up off the streets. This was rectified when captains realised that skimping on cheap food was not worth the risk of mutiny, but bad water in wooden casks was a problem until water distillers became commonplace. Another significant factor in early insurrections was the supposed deception of illiterate men as to their true destinations.
In 1859, Macao authorities began to suspect that mutinies were being conducted as part of a plan to exploit the weaknesses in the recruitment chain. Unscrupulous men willingly volunteered to emigrate in order to be well fed and kept comfortably, while waiting for a ship. Once on board plans would be made to capture the ship and plunder its cargo.
Of the 68 mutinies identified, there were seven from each of Amoy and Swatow, and four each from Cumsingmoon and Hong Kong. Two voyages from Amoy were aborted following mutinies. The ships in question were the American Robert Bowne in 1852 and the British Jeddo in 1866. The five other voyages from Amoy, undertaken by British vessels in the 1852-53 season, all suffered mutinies, with high mortality rates. From Swatow, one French and one Peruvian ship were unable to complete their voyages. The single British and four American ships also endured mutinies with extremely high mortality rates.
Departed Ship
24/09/50 Albert
5/12/51 21/03/52 8/03/53 24/10/53
Table 11.17 Successful Mutinies
Notes
Flag From
To
Fren
Victory
Brit
Robert Bowne
Amer
Rosa Elias
Peru
Cumsingmoon Callao Cumsingmoon Callao Amoy Cumsingmoon
Capt killed
Capt killed
Callao
Capt killed
Callao
Capt killed
Adamastor
Port
Macao
Havana
abandoned
12/7/56
Resolucao
Port
Macao
Havana
Abandoned
12/07/56
Banca
Dutch Macao
Havana
burnt
11/01/57
Port de Bordeaux
Fren
Macao
Havana
abandoned
29/01/57
Anais
9/02/57
Henrietta Maria
1/03/57
Carmen
Fren
Dutch Macao
Peru
Swatow
Swatow
Havana
Capt killed
Havana
abandoned
Callao
8/10/59
Flora Temple
Amer
Macao
Havana
burnt
wrecked
2/08/60
Encarnacion
Span
Macao
Callao
Put back
23/01/66
Hong Kong
Fren
Whampoa
8/03/66
Napoleon Canevaro
Ital
Macao
Havana
Callao
put back
burnt
18/03/66
Jeddo
Brit

Coolie Ships of the Chinese Diaspora(1846-1874)

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