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trade would be at an end (718). In any other case first-class steamers would take care of themselves, except at certain points of danger, where they would require protection (716, 757). They can outstrip any ship of war. War with the United States would interfere the most seriously with our trade. The food supply from North America, including Canada, would be stopped entirely, and the grain trade from Australia and the west coast of America, even if transferred to steamers, would be liable to interruption off Cape Horn (766-771, 796-799, 807-814, 823, 824, 855-857). There would be less difficulty in a war with one or more European Powers. The sailing trade might be interfered with, and trade would be carried on chiefly by steam. There would not be much risk to the food supply from the United States and Canada (745, 773- 775, 798). Steamers might be maintained in the Pacific in spite of hostile squadrons off San Francisco, but British ships would probably be driven out of the trade by American competition (858-861). The results of war with a maritime Power would be the stoppage or enhanced cost of some of our food supplies (759, 760, 812), the transfer of trade from sailing- ships to steamers (754, 755, 766, 767, 810), and the transfer of a large proportion of the latter to a neutral flag, in which case the trade would probably be irre- trievably lost (864-871),
Marine Insurance.-The rate of insurance in time of war would depend upon what Power was hostile. The capture of one ship in fifty would probably cause insurance to rise to a prohibitory rate (750, 751, 753, 824). Steamers running even at 11 or 12 knots could outstrip most ships of war, and the rate of insurance on such vessels might not be prohibitory (756-758).
Coaling-stations.-Coaling-stations are not of great importance to first-class steamers, which can now carry sufficient coal to take them out and back, if necessary (791-726). The lower classes of steamers would require more coaling-stations and ports of refuge than those of the first class (894, 895), of which there are only about 150 in all (883, 884). Ample means for coaling exist, but many of the stations are in foreign territory (735-741). In case of war with the United States, Halifax would be of incalculable value as a port of refuge, but not so much so in a war with any other Power (728-730).
Refitting. There are ample facilities for refitting on the western coast of South America (746), but in the North Atlantic steamers meeting with accidents some- times come home for repairs (747).
Protection required. During war our commerce would require protection at the entrance of the Channel, at the Doldrums near the Equator, and off Cape Horn and the Straits of Magellan. For this reason a coaling-station and port of refuge in the neighbourhood of the Falkland Islands would be im- portant (752, 777-783, 827-830, 843, 844).
Hostile Powers obtaining British ships.-Our mercan- tile marine is of the highest importance to us, as foreign Powers possess no such swift steamers. The Americans will probably build some in future (881, 882), but at present their protective system makes the building of iron ships too expensive (887, 888). Hos- tile Powers would try to purchase swift steamers to use as cruizers, and would probably succeed in obtain- ing some, but not of the first class (891-893). Over- tures have been made for the purchase of ships (699). If a hostile Power obtained ships of the class of our fastest steamers and there might be great temptations to owners to sell-our sailing-ships would be at their mercy, but steamers would be better able to take care of themselves (879, 880, 890).
Admiralty Conditions.-The White Star steamers comply with the Admiralty regulations as to water- tight compartments without great difficulty or expense (689, 690, 700, 701). The machinery is, and must be, exposed, for economy of space. The ships could be quickly adapted to carry guns of 18 tons if required (691, 692, 695, 696, 702).
Naval Reserve. -- Men and officers of the Naval
crew depends much on the captain (826). They have some difficulty in attending "drill from the constant. nature of their employment. More might be made of the Naval Reserve (851).
Panamá Canal.-The Panamá Canal scheme does not excite much interest in Liverpool. The Caual can never be so important to commerce as the Suez Canal (853, 854),
February 13, 1880.
Captain JOHN STEEL, Secretary of the Local Marine Board of London, and representing the London General Ship-owners' Association. Has had exten- sive experience of steamers and sailing-ships (899, 902).
Tonnage and Speed of Steamers.-The ships of the Association trade to all parts of the world. The steamers running to Australia and China range up to 2,500 or 3,000 tons (912). The speed of a few averages 15 knots, but of the majority 12 knots is the maximum. An average speed of 10 knots is probably the most profitable. Two extra knots are obtained at great expense (922-924).
Sailing-ships.-Large sailing-ships are a mistake. Ships of a smaller class, up to 1,000 tons, are now being built; they are chiefly of iron, but a few are composite. They are employed in trade with India, Australia, and the west coast of America (904-908). Steamers are superseding sailing-ships. Our commerce on the shorter voyages, such as the Mediterranean and the North Atlantic, is now all carried on in steamers (903, 909). But steamers cannot supply coal to distant ports, be- cause they would want as much coal at the port of destination as they carry out (911).
Coal Endurance.-First-class steamers can go to China round the Cape without coaling on the way, and might carry coal to take them to China and back, but this would involve the sacrifice of all cargo-space. necessary. Hence intermediate coaling-stations are Freights would have to be very high to compensate a vessel for steaming 4,000 miles without coaling (913- 921, 980, 981).
Coal. No foreign coal equals Welsh coal for use in first-class steamers; low-class steamers can profitably burn Australian coal, which yields about two-thirds of the steam obtained from Welsh coal (961, 964, 965, 984). Chinese coal is inferior to Australian, but better than Labuan coal (958-963). Singapore is supplied from Great Britain, and Hong Kong from Australia as well. Coal is conveyed to and from Australia in sailing- ships (996-998).
Effects of War.-One or two hostile cruizers would not materially affect trade (952). War with a mari- time Power would probably stop the sailing trade, except the supply of coal to distant ports, but this would be carried on with difficulty and great risk (910, 957, 975-982). Steamers with a speed not exceeding 10 knots would be almost as liable to capture as sailing-ships (937, 938, 960), but the swifter steamers would be secured by their speed, and by varying their routes (930, 936). No reasonable protection would enable sailing-ships to keep at sea, as insurance upon them would be prohibitory (953-955).
Convoy.-Convoy would hamper fast steamers, aud would be inadequate to protect sailing-vessels (931, 932, 956).
Protection required.-There are special points of danger, where protection would be needed by commerce in time of war, e.g., the entrance of the China Sea, the entrance of the Java Sea, and the Straits of Sunda, at all of which there are many lurking-places for cruizers (925-928, 939, 946), and the Doldrums (978).
Refitting.-There are ample facilities for refitting at Aden, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Port Saïd (950); but damaged ships are, as a rule, only repaired tempo- rarily at distant ports, on account of the expense (951). Singapore Coaling-stations and Ports of Refuge.
and Penang would be important as ports of refuge (929, 991-993). The indispensable coaling-stations Reserve are employed (825), but their number in any beyond Suez are Aden, Galle, Singapore, and Hong
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