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RICHARD J. SMITH
116 I have discussed many of these problems in Mercenaries and Mandarins and "Foreign-Training," 215-223 and notes.
117 Powell, chapters 2-8; Hatano, "The New Armies"; Young, “Nationalism," etc.
118 Powell amply documents this point. See also the discussion by Sue Fawn Chung, "The Image of the Empress Dowager Tz'u-hsi," in Paul Cohen and John Schrecker, eds., Reform in Nineteenth-Century China (Cambridge, Mass., 1976), esp. 105-106.
119 For the importance of ideology in other areas of reform, however, see K. C. Liu, “Politics, Intellectual Outlook, and Reform: The T'ung-wen Kuan Controversy of 1867," in Cohen and Schrecker, Reform.
120 See Wang Chia-chien, cited in note 104; also Rawlinson, 89.
121 See note 104; also Ayers, 111.
122 The civil service examination system continued to be a nearly irresistible lure to the best minds of the empire, and even Li Hung-chang encouraged foreign-trained military and naval personnel to seek identification with the civil service. See Rawlinson, 203. Biggerstaff, 85, maintains that vested interests were more pervasive in military organizations than the navy.
123 On these problems, see Smith, Mercenaries and Mandarins, chapter 9.
124 See Smith, "Reflections"; also Liu and Smith, "The Military Challenge.