HISTORY
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races before the law. In that year, the Governor's instructions were significantly amended to forbid him to assent to any ordinance 'whereby persons of African or Asiatic birth may be subjected to any disabilities or restrictions to which persons of European birth or descent. are not also subjected'. Government policy was laissez-faire, treating Hong Kong as a market place where all were free to come and go and where the government held the scales impartially.
Public and utility services developed - the Hong Kong and China Gas Company in 1861, the Peak Tram in 1885, the Hong Kong Electric Company in 1889, China Light and Power in 1903, the electric Tramways in 1904 and the then government-owned Kowloon-Canton Railway, completed in 1910. There were successive reclamations dating from 1851 notably one completed in 1904 in Central District, which produced Chater Road, Connaught Road and Des Voeux Road, and another in Wan Chai between 1921-9.
A system of public education began in 1847 with grants to the Chinese vernacular schools. Later, the voluntary schools mainly run by missionaries were included in a grant scheme in 1873. The College of Medicine for the Chinese, founded in 1887, developed into the University of Hong Kong in 1911 and offered arts, engineering and medical faculties.
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After the Chinese Revolution of 1911, which overthrew the Manchu Dynasty, there was a long period of unrest in China and large numbers of people found shelter in Hong Kong. The agitation continued after Chinese participation in World War I brought in its wake strong nationalist and anti-foreign sentiment inspired both by disappointment over failure at the Versailles peace conference to regain the German concessions in Shangdong (Shantung), and by the post-war radicalism of the Kuomintang. The Chinese sought to abolish all foreign treaty privileges in China. Foreign goods were boycotted and the unrest spread to Hong Kong, where a seamen's strike in 1922 was followed by a serious general strike in 1925-6 under pressure from Guangzhou. This petered out, though not before causing considerable disruption in Hong Kong. Britain, with the largest foreign stake in China, was at that time a main target of anti-foreign sentiment, but in this odious role it was soon to be replaced by Japan.
The 1930s and World War II
During World War I, Japan presented its '21 demands' to China. Then, in 1931, Japan occupied Manchuria and the attempt to detach China's northern provinces led to open war in 1937. Guangzhou fell to the Japanese in 1938, resulting in a mass flight of refugees to Hong Kong. It was estimated that some 100 000 refugees entered in 1937, 500 000 in 1938 and 150 000 in 1939 bringing the population at the outbreak of World War II to an estimated 1.6 million. It was thought that at the height of the influx about half a million people were sleeping in the streets.
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Japan entered World War II when, on December 7, 1941, its aircraft bombed United States' warships at Pearl Harbour and at approximately the same time Japanese armed forces attacked Hong Kong (December 8, 1941, local time). The Japanese invaded Hong Kong from across the mainland border and, subsequently, the British were forced to withdraw from the New Territories and Kowloon on to Hong Kong Island. After a week of stubborn resistance on the island, the defenders - including the local Volunteer Corps – were overwhelmed and Hong Kong surrendered on Christmas Day. The Japanese occupa- tion lasted for three years and seven months.
Trade virtually disappeared, currency lost its value, the supply of food was disrupted and government services and public utilities were seriously impaired. Many residents moved to