streamlining of the government apparatus, the number of Ministries, Commissions and other agencies under the State Council was cut from 98 to 52, with a reduction in staff of one third (from 49,000 to 32,000). Many of those over 65 were retired, while others were retained as advisers. Zhao Ziyang assumed charge of a new Commission for Restructuring the Economic System. The number of Vice-Premiers was reduced from 13 to 2 (the number has since been increased to 5). Most Vice-Premiers became State Councillors, with or without portfolio. The establishment of the Machine Building Commission in 1986 brought the number of State Commissions to 10.
—
China is divided administratively into 21 provinces (excluding Taiwan), 5 autonomous regions, and 3 special municipalities (Peking, Shanghai and Tianjin). The autonomous regions Inner Mongolia, Guangxi, Ningxia, Xinjiang and Tibet are areas inhabited by ethnic minorities for whom certain special constitutional provisions are made, but the status of a region is in most respects similar to that of a province. The lowest level of state administration comprises small towns, districts of cities and rural townships (xiang) which are being reintroduced to take over administrative responsibilities from people's communes. (The latter were established in 1958 and combined economic management and administrative functions.) The system of local government is patterned on that of the central government. At each level from the province down there are local people's congresses whose executive arms are the local governments. The local government is also responsible to the government at the next highest level.
Deputies to the people's congresses up to and including the level of county are elected directly. Deputies to congresses at higher levels are elected by the congresses immediately below them. The electoral law (a new version was adopted on 2 December 1986) stipulates that at all levels election is by secret ballot. Anyone over the age of 18 has the right to vote and stand as a candidate, except those who have been deprived of their political rights by law. The number of candidates should exceed the number of places to be filled.
Foreign Relations
"What we need to learn from Europe is science, not political philosophy.” (Sun Yat-sen)
The Soviet Union was the first country to establish relations with the People's Republic of China, on 2 October 1949. The new government was quickly recognised by the Communist countries of Eastern Europe and soon after by a number of other countries, including the United Kingdom on 6 January 1950. China's differences with the Soviet Union came into the open in 1960 when Soviet technicians and aid were withdrawn. During the Cultural Revolution, China's foreign relations were at a low ebb. However, during the 1970s China moved increasingly out of its former isolation. In 1971 the PRC was voted into the China seat at the United Nations, and is a permanent member of the Security Council. In early 1972 President Nixon visited Peking. The USA and PRC agreed on full diplomatic relations in December 1978. Over 120 countries now have diplomatic relations with China. The People's Republic is now a member of all the specialised agencies of the United Nations and of most major international organisations, eg the International Atomic Energy Agency and the International Monetary Fund.
Although the United Kingdom recognised the People's Republic of China in 1950, the Chinese government did not agree formally to exchanging diplomatic representatives until 2 September 1954. Representation was at the level of Chargé d'Affaires until 13 March 1972 when agreement was reached to exchange Ambassadors.
The main aims of China's foreign policy are to develop good relations with those states which can assist it (with technology, capital and expertise) in carrying out its modernisation programme and to counter external threats, which are seen as coming chiefly from the Soviet Union. These aims have led China to develop close ties with the West, especially the
12