e.
RELATIONS WITH NEIGHBOURING PEOPLES
Symbolised by the Great Wall, a prime concern of Chinese governments has been the protection of their settled society from the depredations of nomadic and warlike neighbours. The Chinese, regarding the se neighbours as barbarians, used the tributary system to secure their recognition of the emperor's authority, making tactical alliances in accordance with the principle of "using barbarians to control barbarians" for the protection of Chinese domains. The relationship between the Chinese empire and its neighbours was one of the dominant central power and lesser tribes. Consequently there was no concept of equality in its dealings with its neighbours. When the Chinese succumbed to the rule of invaders, first the Mongols in the 13th century and then the Manchus in the 17th, Chinese culture and methods of government proved stronger than those of the conquerors.
f. THE IMPACT OF THE WEST
The arrival of Western merchants, missionaries and military
force in the 19th century was a severe shock to the Chinese system. In Chinese eyes the physical appearance of the Westerners was outlandish, their behaviour unruly and their pressure for trade and missionary activities disruptive to Chinese society, while the Chinese felt humiliated by Western military superiority, the establishment of foreign concessions and other privileges extracted by the West.
5.
REACTIONS TO WESTERN INFLUENCE
A struggle ensued between the defenders of Chinese tradition who sought to restrict Western influence as far as possible and the advocates of modernisation by means of assimilating Western techniques and ideas. Among the latter were admirers of Japan's achievements. Others were impressed by the anti-imperialist policies of the Soviet Union, and by the early Soviet government's gestures towards China, including its disavowal of "unequal treaties". Western prestige, damaged by the 1914-18 war, was further impaired
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