But coincided with weakening China's
pol/mil/economic circumstances
and growing competition between Western powers (including Russia, Japan and later US) for trade openings.
At first Emperor's strongly resisted western
overtures.[(e.g. rejection of missions of
Lord Macartney (1793) and Ld Amherst (1816).
But increased pressure, backed by mil force
obliged Chinese to accept reluctantly trade
with West and establishment of foreign
concessions and semi-colonies with foreign
jurisdiction
E.g. Shanghai, Dairen, Harbin, Yangtse
River settlements. European privileged
enclaves.
Built up a sense of encirclement
and Chinese idea of 'unequal treaties'.
NB fear of Russia from W land route
as well as Western countries from S and E
by sea.
Σ
Gradually natural Chinese xenophobia
spread. Resistance to foreign encroachment
became part of anti-imperial, KMT and
later communist revolutionary movements.
/Recovery