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in some schemes, may develop. One change which can be readily effected is to raise the prescribed maximum level of remuneration for inclusion, or to abolish it and substitute a suitable ceiling for the assessment of contributions. This step is of especial significance where, because of increases of earnings, employees are excluded after a period of membership during which they have built up prospective rights to benefits. Provisions under which membership may be continued voluntarily are of some value, but generally are not very effective in developing countries because of the lack of familiarity with the insurance technique and the low-paying capacity of some employees, and also are not entirely satisfactory to the social security scheme unless action is possible to avoid the accumulation of bad risks.
17.
Restrictions based on the size of the establishment have the effect cf limiting the social protection of a considerable number of wage earners, due to the prevalence of small businesses and the difficulty of ensuring satisfactory standards of compliance with the employers' liability legislation which may be in force fcr certain contingencies. Action to improve the situation of such workers is all the more necessary because of the relatively low wages and unfavourable conditions cf employment which are often their lot. Furthermore, due to the length of time some schemes have been in existence, a proportion of these workers have been members by virtue of previous employment. It is most desirable that the full value of previous periods of insurance should be realised by continued or renewed membership. In all of these circumstances, strenuous efforts should be made to
the administrative difficulties, utilising the experience gained up to date. A similar task exists in relation to the expansion of schemes applied to specific branches economic activity. Accurate statistics have to be obtained, if necessary by ad hoc surveys, giving the size frequency of establishments and their location. Full use should be made of information held by other government agencies such as those responsible for business registrations, company licensing, and for tax collection.
overcome
of
18. By far the major task in the development of the social security schemes is tne achievement of social protection for the substantial proportion of the wOIK force engaged in agricultural, fishing or related pursuits. The organised or modern agricultural sector, such as the element engaged in plantation labour, presents few technical problems since the main groups of employees are regular workers employed under a contract of service. Apart from the remoteness of some sections, the main difficulty may lie in the provision of adequate medical care facilities. The inclusion of some seasonal or casual plantation workers may be less straightforward, but they require coverage for employment injuries, and protection in respect of other contingencies should be attempted, at least in the case of those who rely to a reasonable extent on earnings and would be likely to acquire benefit rights.
19. A range of additional problems exists in assimilating the unorganised or traditional sector due to such factors as the seasonal or intermittent character of farm work, the fluctuating status of some workers between self employment and forms of employment in which goods or services may constitute a significant element in remuneration, the relatively low incomes, below average standards of literacy, the extent of family employment and the lack of an administrative framework for the introduction and operations of a social security scheme. In developed countries in Asia, the agricultural sector has been brought within the scope of social security measures, sometimes with the aid of rural institutions. Some progress has been made in developing countries, such as the Philippines and Iran, but in a number of others there appears to be a general lack of basic data, concerning possible sources of financing, the optimum scope, and the effective frameworks for schemes, on which to plan the coverage of contingencies and persons. Comprehensive information is needed about all aspects including the potential for financing purposes of agricultural incomes, levies and taxes, the types of agricultural pursuits, employment patterns, seasonal factors, credit and marketing arrangements, source and flow of incomes, methods and value of remuneration, farm and land ownership, types and nature of tenancy agreements, and the institutional framework. From such information it may be possible to discern more clearly the solutions to the crucial problem of financing, and to evolve guidelines for the phased development of schemes designed to meet some of the most urgent needs for social protection of certain identifiable groups in the rural labour force.
Or
20. In many countries farm organisations, such as agricultural corporations co-operatives, have extensive networks with a wide range of functions, including some in the credit and marketing fields, which bring them into regular contact with a high proportion of farm workers and thus may enable them to play a central role in the planning phase. They could well be the source of relevant information, and also could constitute an administrative channel for the registration of insured persons,
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