Principles for Sustainable Development137 in sustainability assessment. The
Executive Summary has a significant influence on town planning in the twenty-
first century. (See Table 7.12.)
The Council for Sustainable Development was established in 2003 and received
a report from the Planning Department in June of the same year. The report stated
sustainable development as the prime goal for the Hong Kong 2030 Study. It said
that sustainable development requires the balancing of economic, social, envi-
ronmental and resource needs, and community engagement in the development
process. The report also noted that Hong Kong’s future development would be
essentially driven by four key forces, namely the increasing population, economic
restructuring, aspirations for a better living environment and increasing socio-
economic interaction with the Mainland. The Planning Department recom-
mended that the government formulate various proposals to address development
needs in line with the goal of sustainable development and assess such proposals
based on established criteria, so as to derive a development option that would max-
imise social benefits and minimise adverse environmental impacts.138
On 26 February 2004, the Hong Kong Declaration was made at the United
134
1999 Policy Address website, http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/pa99/chinese/part5-2c.htm#p122.
135
Council for Sustainable Development, ‘“Susdev 21” and Principles for the Drawing up of a Sustainable
Development Strategy’, Paper No. 02/03, 29 April 2003, www.enb.gov.hk/sites/default/files/susdev/html/
b5/council/SSCPaper02-03t.pdf.
136
Sustainable Development for the 21st Century: Executive Summary, Ch. 5, http://www.pland.gov.hk/
pland_en/p_study/comp_s/susdev/ex_summary/final_chi/ch5.htm.
137
Environment Bureau, Sustainable Development Online Resource Centre, ‘Hong Kong: Eight Guiding
Principles for Sustainable Development’ website, http://orc.susdev.gov.hk/tc/what_is_sd/hk_principle/
index.html.
138
Planning Department, ‘Hong Kong 2030: Planning Vision and Strategy’, Council for Sustainable
Development Paper No. 11/03, 15 September 2003, www.enb.gov.hk/sites/default/files/susdev/html/b5/
council/Paper11-03t.pdf.
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Challenge of sustainable development (1997–2015) · 431
Table 7.12 Summary of the Eight Guiding Principles for Sustainable Development in
Hong Kong
Economy Economic return as determined through cost–benefit analysis.
Percentage change in income less income tax for the upper quartile
household minus the percentage change in income less income tax for
the lower quartile.
Gross domestic fixed capital formation as a percentage of GDP.
Expenditure on primary, secondary and tertiary education as a percentage
of GDP.
Health and In-patient discharges and deaths per 100,000 population due to diseases
hygiene of the respiratory system.
Natural resources Consumption of energy per unit of output.
Quantity of municipal solid waste, public fill and construction and
demolition waste requiring final disposal per capita.
The total remaining landfill capacity.
Volume of fresh water supplied per capita and percentage of demand
met by fresh water resources.
Area of countryside.
Landscape/scenic value.
Society and social Average length of waiting list for public rental housing.
infrastructure Median rent to income ratio for private housing.
Percentage of households residing in inadequate housing.
Living space per person.
Indicator on percentage of population living within a short walk of a
community facility.
Waiting lists for residential care homes for the elderly.
Number of student members of civic education and community service
organisations.
Percentage of students receiving a passing grade or above in the Chinese
and English languages in the Hong Kong Certificate of Education
examination.
Biodiversity Area of Hong Kong of high terrestrial/marine ecological value.
Area of managed terrestrial/marine habitat for conservation.
Leisure and Number of recorded archaeological, cultural and historical sites.
cultural vibrancy Percentage of population living within districts with a shortfall of required
provision of open space.
Annual ticket sales for major cultural, entertainment and sporting events.
Environmental Composite index for criteria air pollutants based on percentage of the air
quality quality objectives.
Composite index for toxic air pollutants based on percentage of
acceptable risk.
Quantity of carbon dioxide emitted per year (or per capita per year).
Percentage of population exposed to excessive noise.
Number of kilometres of river ranked ‘excellent’ or ‘good’ using the
Environmental Protection Department river water quality index.
Composite index of marine water quality pollutants based on percentage
of the water quality objectives.
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432 · MAKING HONG KONG
Table 7.12 (continued)
Number of beach-days per year ranked ‘good’ or ‘fair’.
Indicator on indoor air quality.
Mobility Average travel distances: the unit of such a measure is passenger distance
travelled, i.e. the distance travelled by passengers to get to work by all
major groups of transport modes.
Average network speed: the average network speed of travel across all
major groups of transport modes both public and private.
The cost of road-based freight transport: the cost of charges and
operating costs as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP).
Source: Sustainable Development for the 21st Century: Executive Summary, Ch. 5, http://www.pland.gov.hk/pland_en/p_study/
comp_s/susdev/ex_summary/final_eng/ch5.htm.
Nations Asia-Pacific Leadership Forum: Sustainable Development for Cities
jointly convened by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social
Affairs and the government of the People’s Republic of China. The Declaration
looked at key challenges to sustainable development for cities and their impacts
on regional cooperation.
The development model proposed in the Hong Kong 2030 Report in 2007
entails the overall objectives of sustainable development, as well as the concept
and functions of spatial planning. In view of the slowdown of population growth
and in line with the sustainable development principles, the direction for Hong
Kong’s future development is clearly to do more with less. In other words, Hong
Kong should strive for a quality life and better efficiency while being prudent on
resource utilisation and cautious about embarking on massive construction pro-
grammes on undeveloped land. The Hong Kong 2030 Report comprises three
planning directions: to provide a quality living environment, to enhance eco-
nomic competitiveness, and to strengthen links with the Mainland. A balance
between the three is essential to sustainable development, and is a basic compo-
nent of long-term planning. (See Table 7.13.)
In terms of land use planning, priorities have been determined in order to
maximise the benefits of the land. In line with the Metroplan and new town
development in the 1990s, five sub-regions have been identified based on their
geographical surroundings and features. Each sub-region plays a different role in
alleviating the burdens on the core urban areas.
The Territorial Development Strategy Review, published in February 1998,
emphasised land use planning in the form of a land use–transport duo that
became a land use–transport–environment trio139 in the Hong Kong 2030
Report, which also introduced the concept of sustainable development.140
The report included a lot of paragraphs on saving global resources and pro-
139
Hong Kong Planning Department, Hong Kong 2030: Planning Vision and Strategy: Final Report, Hong
Kong, Planning Department, 2007, p.3.
140
Hong Kong Planning Department, Hong Kong 2030: Planning Vision and Strategy: Final Report, Hong
Kong, Planning Department, 2007, p.3.
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Challenge of sustainable development (1997–2015) · 433
Table 7.13 Characteristics and planning focuses of the five sub-regions
Sub-region Characteristics Planning focus
Metro Area The pulse of To strengthen the hub functions, the business district along
Hong Kong the northern shore of Hong Kong Island and the southern
part of Kowloon Peninsula will continue to be the main
economic activity centre of Hong Kong. South-east
Kowloon, Tsuen Wan and the western and southern parts
of Hong Kong Island are all included in the Metro Area for
key development. It is home for over 4 million people and
provides about 80 per cent of all job opportunities.
The potential of Victoria Harbour will be tapped for the
creation of new leisure and business facilities, marine-related
facilities (marina for pleasure crafts, cruise terminal, etc.) and
new landmarks (a fisherman’s wharf).
Innovative building and urban design will be utilised to
enhance the townscape, while heritage buildings will be
preserved. Civic squares and park areas will be provided
and more trees will be planted, in order to give workers,
residents and tourists breathing spaces and for public
amenity.
South A tourist, This sub-region has many beautiful islands and country parks,
West New recreation and as well as convenient transport infrastructure.
Territories leisure centre Lantau presents enormous potential, with well-planned new
towns (i.e. Tung Chung and Tai Ho), as well as world-class
recreational facilities such as international theme parks, a
cable car system and an aquatic centre. It is essential to
preserve country parks, beautiful beaches and sensitively
designed resort developments in the southern part of
Lantau.
The international airport at Chek Lap Kok can serve as an
international air transport hub in southern China.
South Leisure garden The natural beauties in Sai Kung and Port Shelter offer great
East New and aquatic potential for recreational and leisure attractions. It is
Territories centre of Hong necessary to conserve the beautiful countryside and explore
Kong opportunities for compatible recreational uses. Efforts will
be made to explore innovative and creative recreational
proposals in harmony with the natural landscape.
Tseung Kwan O will serve as a strategic growth area to provide
additional land for residential development to meet housing
needs.
North Gateway to the With the construction of the West Rail and the new cross-
West New Pearl River Delta boundary links, this sub-region has become a gateway to
Territories the PRD region. Upon the commissioning of the West Rail,
NWNT has become one of the main sources of land for new
strategic growth.
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434 · MAKING HONG KONG
Table 7.13 (continued)
Sub-region Characteristics Planning focus
This sub-region has been subject to intense development
pressure, since large tracts of agricultural land and fish
ponds have been converted for housing, open storage and
port back-up uses. Besides, the proposed construction of
a container port in western Tuen Mun will lead to major
changes in the role and appearance of this sub-region.
Efforts should be made to protect the natural environment,
especially the internationally important wetlands around Mai
Po.
North The technology Places like Sha Tin, Tai Po, Fanling and Sheung Shui remain
East New hub rural in character and are still unspoiled and unpolluted.
Territories To meet housing needs, a new strategic growth area has been
identified in Kwu Tung. Land can be explored to meet
housing needs. This sub-region also has the potential to
become a technology hub of Hong Kong.
There are a great number of research institutes along the
Kowloon–Canton Railway East Rail, such as the Polytechnic
University in Hung Hom, the City University and Hong Kong
Industrial Technology Centre in Kowloon Tong, the Chinese
University of Hong Kong in Sha Tin, the Science Park in Pak
Shek Kok and the Industrial Estate in Tai Po. These facilities
form a cultural and technological hub that strengthens Hong
Kong’s status as a regional base for high-technology and
high-value-added activities.
Source: Planning Department, Hong Kong 2030: Planning Vision and Strategy: Inception Report, 2001, www.pland.gov.hk/
pland_en/p_study/comp_s/hk2030/chi/inception.
tecting the ecosystem. It showed Hong Kong’s determination to become
an international city and aroused discussions on a healthy and productive
environment. While it was popular to present related concepts in the name
of environmental protection at that time, the international community has
gradually adopted the concept of sustainable development as a guide for
future development.
Efficient use of land resources
The lack of developable land is the biggest obstacle confronting Hong Kong in
the formulation of long-term plans. The government should regulate land prices
by means of the market mechanism of supply and demand. It should maintain
price stability, which has a critical impact on overall economic development.
When exploring remote areas to increase land supply, it is necessary to consider
the cost-effectiveness of new infrastructure provision. In 2015, the Development
Bureau and Planning Department, in collaboration with relevant bureaus and
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Challenge of sustainable development (1997–2015) · 435
departments, commenced the updating of the territorial development strategy.
The new strategy was named Hong Kong 2030+: Towards a Planning Vision
and Strategy Transcending 2030, or Hong Kong 2030+ for short. It basically
builds upon the foundation of Hong Kong 2030: Planning Vision and Strategy.
In response to global and regional changes and to address relevant planning
issues in Hong Kong, Hong Kong 2030+ will focus on planning for a liveable
high-density city, embracing new economic challenges and opportunities as well
as creating capacity for sustainable growth. It will provide an updated spatial
planning framework and broad directions to guide planning, land and infrastruc-
ture development of Hong Kong beyond 2030.141
The Planning Department is assessing the future supply and demand of dif-
ferent uses of land in Hong Kong, including the floor areas of and the needs
for Grade A offices and commercial and industrial uses, so that comprehen-
sive strategies of spatial planning can be formulated to meet the anticipated
demands. To promote business development, the government will increase the
supply of commercial land and strengthen the support for technology start-ups
and innovative technologies, together with further efforts to promote creative
industries. The Energizing Kowloon East initiative will transform the area into
an alternative central business district, by capitalising on potential office floor
area of several million square metres.142
Smart city
In 2015, the government proposed the concept of the smart city based on rel-
evant experience in Paris, Tokyo, and Tianjin on the Mainland.143 Proposals
included enhancing pedestrian and vehicular accessibility and managing district
facilities by means of technology, and disseminating information to the public in
digital format, with a view to providing a better place for work and play.144
Kowloon East, covering Kai Tak, Kowloon Bay and Kwun Tong, used to
serve as a key industrial base and the location of the international airport of
Hong Kong. Kowloon East has the potential to supply an additional commer-
cial or office floor area of about 5 million square metres. Besides, the govern-
ment has relocated or reorganised its existing government facilities in the two
action areas in Kowloon East, and it started to put suitable sites on the market in
2014–2015. On 15 January 2015, the Conceptual Master Plan 4.0 was launched
for the Energizing Kowloon East initiative, focusing on five priorities, namely
‘“Walkable” Kowloon East, Green CBD, Smart City, Kai Tak Fantasy and the
Spirit of Creation’,145 and with the aim of building a convenient, accessible and
141
http://www.pland.gov.hk/hk2030plus/tc/study_F.html.
142
‘HKETO and HKTB Host Lunar New Year Reception in Toronto’, Press Releases, 26 February 2015,
http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201502/26/P201502260265.htm.
143
2015 Policy Address website, p.9, http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/2015/chi/pdf/PA2015.pdf.
144
2015 Policy Address website, p.28, www.policyaddress.gov.hk/2015/chi/pdf/Agenda_Ch2.pdf.
145
Energizing Kowloon East Office, ‘Conceptual Master Plan 4.0’, 2015, http://www.ekeo.gov.hk/tc/con
ceptual_master_plan/master_plan_4/CMP4.0_final.pdf.
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436 · MAKING HONG KONG
eco-friendly central business district (‘CBD2’) for Hong Kong. Smart city ini-
tiatives will include using mobile apps and the EFLS to integrate resources and
provide maps of walkable shortcuts, so as to shorten citizens’ walking time.
In 2015, the concept of a ‘“Walkable” Kowloon East’ was first launched in 18
sets of back alleys suitable for optimisation in Kowloon Bay and the Kwun Tong
Business Area, so as to reduce the burden imposed by busy commercial activities
and vehicle–pedestrian conflicts in the district. Four sets of the back alleys are
located at the junction of Lai Yip and Wai Yip Streets, next to Tsun Yip Street
Playground, on Hoi Yuen Road and on Hung To Road. Related works include
the resurfacing of some roads, renewal of building walls and addition of signs to
attract pedestrians. These initiatives are intended to face-lift back alleys which are
dark, dirty and narrow, and alleys of industrial buildings that are used as loading
and unloading areas. The back alleys will become walkways to benefit pedestri-
ans. In addition to walkway improvements, arrangements are planned to facilitate
the construction of elevated walkways by private property owners, to face-lift Hoi
Bun Road Park with a view to strengthening the connectivity between the Ngau
Tau Kok MTR Station and the Kwun Tong waterfront, and to build an additional
pedestrian footbridge near Kowloon Bay MTR Station for the sake of controlling
crowded pedestrian links and enhancing transport connectivity.
The concept of a ‘Green CBD’ involves connecting the Kwun Tong
Promenade to the space beneath the flyover along Hoi Bun Road. The area
underneath the Kwun Tong Bypass will be transformed for arts, cultural and
creative uses and integrated with the adjacent landscaped pedestrian network
extending to the King Yip Street nullah, which will be transformed into the Tsui
Ping River through environmental, ecological and landscaping improvements.
Together with the green buildings and environment enabled by the public and
private sectors in the district, these will create synergy in turning Kowloon East
into a Green CBD.
Energy saving and convenience are the most important objectives of smart
cities. Additional smart traffic lights can reduce pedestrian waiting time. Most of
the current traffic lights have their signal changed at different intervals depend-
ing on the time of the day. New smart traffic lights will be installed with sensors
that detect when a pedestrian is standing at a specific spot and send a signal for
the traffic light to change faster. These can divert pedestrian flows when installed
on roads with smaller vehicular flows in the commercial building area. Besides,
drivers can enjoy greater convenience if parking space information is provided
by means of computer systems. For energy conservation, smart utility meters
will be added in industrial buildings to provide property owners with regular
data, so as to reduce waste due to leakage. The Water Supplies Department
preliminarily considers the proposal feasible. Bus companies will be consulted
for the installation of bus–bus interchanges in the vicinity of Kwun Tong, so
as to reduce the number of buses in the commercial area. Published measures
also include the Kai Tak EFLS, the district cooling system and the Kowloon Bay
Waste Recycling Centre. IT sector lawmaker Charles Mok suggested that an
overall planning framework be formulated to strengthen cooperation between
the authorities and public and private sector partners. He also proposed that the
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Challenge of sustainable development (1997–2015) · 437
government share information with citizens or companies, or encourage compa-
nies to share energy.146
The ‘Kai Tak Fantasy’ project is intended to explore the potential of Kwun
Tong Typhoon Shelter. The former airport runway tip, Kwun Tong Action Area
and the water body in between will be developed into a tourism, entertainment
and leisure destination. The ‘Spirit of Creation’ is to seek to understand Hong
Kong’s sense of creativity and its inspiration for the future through exploring
the traditional industries in Kowloon East. The merging and transformation
of industrial culture and architectural designs from the past will drive organic
growth in the city.
Railway network
In order to develop the railway network by making good use of land, the govern-
ment formulated Hong Kong Moving Ahead: A Transport Strategy for the Future in
1999 and completed the review and update of the Railway Development Strategy
2000 in May 2000.147 When planning a territory-wide transport system, the gov-
ernment has already taken into consideration the integration of transport and
urban planning, and made it an established policy to develop railways as the
backbone of the city’s passenger transport system. The 2014 Policy Address
also showed the government’s determination to continue with the develop-
ment of a transportation system centred on public transport with railway as
the backbone.148 The government would conduct an in-depth study on public
transport arrangements across the territory and review the roles of other public
transport services in tandem with the railway network expansion, with efforts
to alleviate congestion and reduce emissions. It also further assessed the rela-
tions between transport and land use, evaluating and prioritising major long-
term development opportunities from the transport perspective, with a view to
formulating an optimised distribution of population and employment. On 17
September 2014, the government announced the Railway Development Strategy
2014. Seven new railway projects were put forward at the meeting of the LegCo
Subcommittee on Matters Relating to Railways on 27 October of the same year.
It was also proposed to build a large railway network to connect NDAs and
core urban areas between 2018 and 2026. The commencement and completion
dates of the railway projects will depend on the housing development progress
of and resource assessment for the neighbourhood. (See Table 7.14 for the draft
schedule.)
If all proposals are realised, the total length of the railway network in Hong
Kong will increase to over 300 kilometres, covering areas inhabited by about
75 per cent of the total population and about 85 per cent of job opportunities.
146
Apple Daily, 2 February 2015, p.A10.
147
Hong Kong Legislative Council Panel on Transport, ‘Background Brief on Public Transport Strategy in
Hong Kong’, LC Paper No. CB(1)238/14-15(07), Meeting on 25 November 2014, 21 November 2014, p.2,
http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr14-15/chinese/panels/tp/papers/tp20141125cb1-238-7-c.pdf.
148
2014 Policy Address website, www.policyaddress.gov.hk/2014/chi/p150.html.
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438 · MAKING HONG KONG
Table 7.14 Locations and proposed years of completion of the seven new railway projects
Railway project Proposed years of implementation
Northern Link and Kwu Tung Station 2018−2023
Tuen Mun South Extension 2019−2022
East Kowloon Line 2019−2025
Tung Chung West Extension 2020−2024
Hung Shui Kiu Station 2021−2024
South Island Line (West) 2021−2026
North Island Line 2021−2026
Source: Hong Kong Legislative Council Panel on Transport, ‘Background Brief on Public Transport Strategy in Hong Kong’,
LC Paper No. CB(1)238/14-15(07), 21 November 2014, p.4, http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr14-15/english/panels/tp/papers/
tp20141125cb1-238-7-e.pdf.
With the improvement of the public transport system, roadside air pollutants
and greenhouse gases will be reduced by 2–4 per cent per year, together with
energy savings.149 According to the Energy Saving Plan for Hong Kong’s Built
Environment 2015–2025+, the total annual energy consumption of the trans-
port sector in 2012 was about 92,512 terajoules or about 32 per cent of the total
energy end-use, of which 88 per cent was consumed in vehicular transporta-
tion, about 9 per cent in marine transportation and 3 per cent in railway.150
Urban development entails integration of land use, transport and environmental
planning. Public transport services should be coordinated and monitored, with
railway stations as the core. Related measures should enhance the efficiency of
the overall transport network, maintain reasonable fares, relieve congestion and
address environmental concerns. Facilities or developments with high traffic
demand should be sited within walking distance or reach of short feeder services
from railway stations. This addresses the traffic demand and reduces road traffic.
In 2011, railways patronage accounted for about 38 per cent of local public
transport services. Five new railway projects were under way in 2015, namely
the Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong XRL (Hong Kong Section), the West
Island Line, the South Island Line (East), the Kwun Tong Line Extension, and
the Sha Tin to Central Link, which are expected to be completed by 2020. The
‘rail-based development approach’ proposed in the Hong Kong 2030 Report
not only inherits previous principles, but also takes into account population
growth and housing development. The approach works along with the environ-
mental policy of emission reduction to ease congestion and road traffic. In the
process, Hong Kong’s internal transport facilities can become on a par with the
facilities of the world-renowned HKIA. With both local and global connectivity,
149
‘Opening Remarks by STH at Press Conference on Energy Saving Plan for Hong Kong’s Built
Environment 2015–2025+’, Press Releases, 14 May 2015, www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201505/14/P201505
140685.htm.
150
Environment Bureau, Development Bureau and Transport and Housing Bureau, Energy Saving Plan
for Hong Kong’s Built Environment 2015–2025+, May 2015, p.57, http://www.enb.gov.hk/sites/default/files/
pdf/EnergySavingPlanTc.pdf.
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Challenge of sustainable development (1997–2015) · 439
both the economic efficiency and the international image of Hong Kong can be
enhanced.151 (See Figure 7.10.)
Brownfield development
In 2015, the government set a target for the provision of 460,000 residential
units in the following ten years. Accordingly, the government needs more land
to meet the continuous demand resulting from economic activities and busi-
ness facilities. Therefore, the government must adopt a multi-pronged strategy
comprising short-, medium- and long-term measures to increase the supply of
land and development space. Short-term measures include increasing the devel-
opment intensity of developable land, rezoning, urban renewals and developing
railway properties. Medium- to long-term measures consist mainly of various
planning and engineering studies on new development areas and new town
extension, including the conversion of sizeable ‘brownfield’ sites and squatter
areas in rural New Territories for high-density development (e.g. Kwu Tung
North, Fanling North, Hung Shui Kiu and Yuen Long South), as well as the
development of rock caverns and underground space.152
A vast amount of agricultural land in rural New Territories, especially the rel-
atively flat and more accessible areas, has been occupied by various industrial
uses such as open storage, port back-up facilities, industrial workshops, logis-
tics operations, recycling yards, storage of construction machinery and materials
storage, which are often incompatible with the surroundings. These sites, gener-
ally referred to as brownfield sites, can be put to good use through comprehensive
planning and development. The government estimated that there are about 190
hectares of brownfield sites in Hung Shui Kiu and about 106 hectares in Yuen
Long South, which can be used for producing about 28,000 residential units.
Most brownfield sites are used for port back-up, open storage and rural indus-
trial operation. They are polluted to various extents. It is difficult to estimate the
costs of decontamination and land remediation as well as the risks of legal liabil-
ity involved. Most brownfields are owned by several companies or individuals,
making the resumption of such land complicated and time-consuming. Besides,
there are different business operations on brownfield sites. Although not really
technologically advanced, they play a role in supporting Hong Kong’s various
industries, including container terminals, ports and logistics, recycling, trans-
port, construction and manufacturing, providing a large number of jobs requir-
ing only low skills or low academic qualifications. All these are integral to the
livelihoods of many people, and are important elements of various industries in
Hong Kong. Therefore, in order to tackle the issue of brownfields while allowing
room for these economic activities to continue their operations, the government
151
‘HKETO and HKTB Host Lunar New Year Reception in Toronto’, Press Releases, 26 February 2015,
http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201502/26/P201502260265.htm.
152
Legislative Council Secretariat Information Services Division Research Office, ‘Brownfield
Development’, 28 April 2015, http://www.legco.gov.hk/research-publications/chinese/essentials-1415ise
10-brownfield-development.htm.
M4593-HO_9781788117944_t.indd 439 20/08/2018 16:48
M4593-HO_9781788117944_t.indd 440
Source: Transport and Housing Bureau, Railway Development Strategy 2014, September 2014, p.19, http://www.thb.gov.hk/tc/psp/publications/transport/publications/rds2014.pdf.
Figure 7.10 Hong Kong’s railway network in 2031
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Challenge of sustainable development (1997–2015) · 441
is stepping up efforts to explore ways to cope with brownfield operations that
are still needed in Hong Kong and the feasibility of consolidating some of these
operations into multi-storey buildings. The proposal will improve the environ-
ment of rural New Territories and release land for development.153
Globalisation
With globalisation and the rise of China, Hong Kong must embrace globalisa-
tion and find a suitable role in China’s development. In the future, Hong Kong
will be a cosmopolitan city which can play an important role in China and which
can also exert a positive, international influence. For the first 15 years of the
twenty-first century, Hong Kong was endeavouring to maintain its status as an
international financial centre and to meet the needs of China’s overall develop-
ment. In the 2010–11 Policy Address, the government pointed out that it is to
Hong Kong’s advantage to be ‘part of China but outside the Mainland’. It will
be Hong Kong’s future position and direction to be developed as a global finan-
cial centre, asset management centre and offshore RMB business centre attract-
ing capital and talent from within and outside the country. On the principle of
achieving a win–win situation and contributing to the country’s financial secu-
rity, Hong Kong will be actively involved in promoting the modernisation of the
Mainland’s financial system, particularly the internationalisation of the RMB.
Hong Kong will adapt to China’s development planning, strengthen coopera-
tion with Guangdong Province, and help realise the steady market reforms of
China’s interest and exchange rate regimes, so that the city will become a highly
sophisticated international financial centre.
It is necessary for Hong Kong to understand the challenges brought about by
China’s planning, and to take a critical look at its own weaknesses and shortcom-
ings, so as to chart the way forward for sustainable development. It is repeatedly
stated in China’s planning outline that ‘support will be given to Hong Kong
in the development of its service industries such as financial services, logistics,
tourism and information services, and the maintenance of Hong Kong’s status
as an international centre of financial services, trade and shipping’,154 indicating
the role of Hong Kong’s advantages in promoting China’s development.
Hong Kong is unique as compared to other Chinese cities. To be an inter-
national city, Hong Kong must closely follow the guidelines for sustainable
development proposed by the international community, in terms of air quality
management, for example. With the sources of air pollution in Hong Kong
being closely related to Guangdong Province, the governments of both places
drafted and implemented the PRD Regional Air Quality Management Plan in
2007 in order to reduce air pollution. Accordingly, a 16-station air quality moni-
toring network was set up in the PRD. Based on the data collected, the PRD
Regional Air Quality Index is released every day on the Internet to keep the
153
2016 Policy Address website, http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/2016/chi/p123.html.
154
2006–07 Policy Address website, https://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/06-07/chi/p14.html.
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442 · MAKING HONG KONG
public informed of the actual air quality in the region. The data collected have
also helped assess the effectiveness of pollution reduction measures in meeting
emission targets. The Guangdong government has been strengthening its hard-
ware and software to reduce pollution. Measures pursued include installing des-
ulphurisation systems, using natural gas for power generation, and striving to
speed up the introduction of National III motor vehicle emission standards (on
a par with Euro III standards) in PRD cities.155 Concerted efforts by the two gov-
ernments are indispensable for the improvement of local air quality.
Apart from pollution problems in Hong Kong and the Mainland, future urban
planning will also address an issue of global concern: the global warming crisis
caused by the greenhouse effect. In 2004, for example, greenhouse gas emissions
per capita in Hong Kong were 7 per cent below the 1990 level; yet global warming
remained a common challenge for the entire world. In light of their own eco-
nomic, social and environmental characteristics, governments around the world
have to formulate measures to strike a balance between economic development
and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, with a view to achieving sustaina-
ble development. In the same vein, Hong Kong has done its part in improving the
regional environment. From 1995 to 2005, the energy intensity in Hong Kong,
that is, energy consumed per unit GDP, dropped by 13 per cent. As an Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation (APEC) member, Hong Kong is committed to honour-
ing its pledge and achieving a reduction in energy intensity of at least 25 per cent
before 2030, with 2005 as the base year. To this end, the government has endeav-
oured to raise public awareness of climate change and introduced energy-saving
measures at different levels. The government has consulted the public on the
proposed mandatory implementation of the Building Energy Codes by means of
legislation. In 2008, as the legislative work was completed relating to the Energy
Efficiency Labelling Scheme (first phase) for household electrical appliances,
planning for the second phase was subsequently commenced.156
Hong Kong aspires to be on a par with other world cities and to be trans-
formed into a green city. The government has conducted strategic environ-
mental assessment and formulated strategic environmental actions regarding
environmental concerns in the planning process, so as to ensure an acceptable
environment in the future. In 2015, the government protected 24 country parks
not far away from urban areas, so that citizens could find a place out of the hustle
and bustle. Apart from promoting economic development, the government has
used cultural heritage conservation to highlight the local features of the modern
metropolis of Hong Kong, so that this international city with historic features
and high efficiency can stay abreast of other major cities in the world.
Summary
Hong Kong has been striving to maintain its economic leadership in the world
since the turn of the century. The government believes that urban planning and
155
2006–07 Policy Address website, www.policyaddress.gov.hk/06-07/chi/pdf/speech.pdf.
156
2007–08 Policy Address website, www.policyaddress.gov.hk/07-08/chi/docs/policy.pdf.
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Challenge of sustainable development (1997–2015) · 443
development are important elements in enhancing the competitiveness of Hong
Kong. Starting in the 1990s, the government has committed itself to develop-
ing new core areas in the city, so as to alleviate the congestion in Central and
Tsim Sha Tsui. West Kowloon and South East Kowloon are focus areas for the
city’s development for the first half of the twenty-first century. West Kowloon,
built on newly reclaimed land, features new cultural facilities that span a wide
green space with a convenient transport network. The district will introduce
new development elements to the urban landscape of Hong Kong. The site of
the vacated Kai Tak Airport has been used to provide land for commercial and
residential development. The concept of the smart city has been introduced, in
order to reduce vehicular flows and to enhance traffic efficiency in the local area.
The newly developed areas not only help address the problem of expensive and
scarce office space in Central, but also encourage a better-distributed popula-
tion. The development approaches for West Kowloon and South East Kowloon
have laid a solid basis for Hong Kong as an international metropolis.
The satellite towns planned in the mid-1960s and the new towns in the New
Territories that were developed in the 1980s have played a significant role in
diverting the population and promoting local industrial development. In the late
1990s, the New Territories remained a major source of land to accommodate
population growth. In the twenty-first century, North West and North East New
Territories are planned as NDAs and given priority in development, in order
to capitalise on the existing resources of infrastructure and public services. In
today’s NDAs, great importance is attached to the living quality of residents.
Consideration should be given to population density and distribution, ratio of
green space, air quality, and the protection of traditional agricultural practices
and the natural environment.
For the development of the boundary area between the New Territories and
Shenzhen, it is necessary to consider the needs of both Hong Kong and the
Mainland. Among other things, transport facilities for sea and land networks
will need to address the constantly increasing number of cross-boundary pas-
sengers. It is advised that a boundary control point should be added, connect-
ing to eastern Guangdong Province. All these initiatives will strengthen the
ties between Hong Kong and the Mainland. As an economic powerhouse in
southern China, Hong Kong has to take into account the needs of neighbouring
regions in the expansion of its urban territory and trade activities. This represents
a major change in Hong Kong’s development strategy after its return to China.
Global climate changes have resulted in a number of crises, such as the frequent
occurrence of extreme weather events and the scarcity of natural resources. In
view of that, the government has developed policies and guidelines for sustain-
able development, with efforts dedicated to conserving natural resources and
improving the urban environment. Improving legislation and increasing policy
transparency have been included in the agenda of urban planning, and public
engagement is an indispensable concept in urban planning in the twenty-first
century.
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Conclusion
The characteristics of the development of a city are always inseparable from its
history. Unlike the history of politics, economy, thoughts or cultures, which
observes a city merely from the perspective of persons or things, the history of
town planning in Hong Kong analyses the city’s evolution process, the turning
points in its transformation and the reasons for its breakthroughs, so that we
may grasp the key to promoting the development of the city. A review of the
city’s development blueprints allows us to reconstruct our identity as urbanites
by revisiting various landmarks, historical places and characteristics of spatial
development. By so doing, we modern people may avoid feeling lost or confused
in the self-searching journey through different times and spaces. The impacts
of the external environment are interactive with the internal response, leading
to different results depending on the time and the space. The land utilisation
and contingency strategies of urbanites of different periods also varied, and this
reflects the characteristics of the city in different eras.
Historical events are the turning points for different eras. Political events, eco-
nomic conditions and even the social structure may change with time. The soci-
ety’s degree of response to political events and the urgency of countermeasures
often affect each other. Is city development affected by the political situation or
the other way round? In the past, researchers of Hong Kong’s town planning
mostly followed the idea of British scholars, who opined that the city was not very
worthy of analysis except for its economic development, owing to its lack of natural
resources.1 In their opinion, there could be no long-term urban planning for Hong
Kong, since the city was no more than a temporary trading and living place. The
experience of small-scale planning in the pre-war era was never regarded as the
basis for the large-scale development of later times. In fact, pre-war town planning
in Hong Kong was mainly intended to meet different challenges such as climate
disasters, public health incidents, economic recessions, social unrest and cultural
conflicts. Construction works, spatial designs and even regional functions and
traffic flows were used to provide activity space for the new population. As a result,
life prospered in this populous city, and urbanisation was promoted in Hong Kong.
From the early post-war period to the handover, town planning mainly reflected
the city’s internal response to the external environment. During that time, design-
ers of cities relied on the prevailing situations and social conditions as the basis
1
G.B. Endacott, an expert on Hong Kong history, believed that Hong Kong history was economic history,
as the birth and rise of Hong Kong were shaped by economic forces. The story of Hong Kong was told mainly
from the perspectives of the governors and the Colonial Office. There was nothing unique about the history of
Hong Kong, which was just a typical example of a British overseas territory of the early Victorian era. See G.B.
Endacott, History of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Oxford University Press, 1964.
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Conclusion · 445
for future projections and visions, with the hope of leading the city forward. If
objective conditions did not occur as expected, it would naturally be necessary to
modify plans in line with changes in social needs. Therefore, the earliest planning
statements could be replaced by later concepts, and old ideas could be considered
outdated. Everyone focused on the number of plans actually implemented, while
the revised planning concepts would be ignored. Since the handover, members
of the public have become more enthusiastic about monitoring planning poli-
cies, and their opinions are valued more highly thanks to the electoral system.
Consequently, the government’s leading role has been affected. Town planning
can no longer be based on the same high level of cost-effectiveness as it was in the
1990s, but instead entails coordinating the interests of various stakeholders. Since
the planning work is closely related with the city’s development at different times,
it is natural to observe the city’s evolution at different stages. Through the charac-
teristics of different phases, readers should be able to have an in-depth understand-
ing of the planners’ ideas, factors affecting the implementation of designs, and the
reasons and process of the emergence of each district in the city.
From the 1840s to the time when the Convention for the Extension of Hong
Kong Territory was signed in 1898, Hong Kong was a very small city, covering
only today’s Hong Kong Island and the Kowloon Peninsula. City of Victoria
was even smaller, made up of just the present-day Central and Sheung Wan
on the northern coast of Hong Kong Island. In order to develop Hong Kong
into a trading port with China, the colonial government overcame geograph-
ical constraints and the shortage of natural resources and established a core
area in the city. It was a systematic plan based on the British experience, with
related feasibility assessment. Water supply projects and transport facilities
using widespread Western technology gradually helped the ideas materialise,
laying a foundation for Hong Kong’s entrepôt trade and the attraction of new
immigrants. The city’s development focus was aligned mainly with Britain’s eco-
nomic and trade interests. There was a series of port facilities to meet Europeans’
daily needs, such as religious, recreational and cultural activities, among others.
The direction of the city’s development at that time was dominated by British
imperialism that considered the Chinese to be ‘uncivilised’ people. In the early
1880s, British engineer Osbert Chadwick published his reports on Hong Kong’s
sanitary conditions and sewerage systems. However, to protect the lives of
the Europeans from being affected by the Chinese, the government did not
immediately address City of Victoria’s public hygiene problems, but instead
started setting up residential areas reserved for Europeans in 1888, so that
the Europeans would be kept far from Chinese communities with extremely
poor sanitary conditions, and excluded Chinese communities from planning.
The government’s gross neglect of the problems affecting the living and sani-
tary environment of Chinese communities led to the rapid spread of the plague
at the end of the nineteenth century, when Hong Kong experienced a tragic
catastrophe. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the colonial government
redeveloped Taipingshan District and reviewed insufficiencies in previous plan-
ning by taking account of the population density, living environment and public
facilities. It is an indisputable fact that town planning in the nineteenth century
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446 · MAKING HONG KONG
was tainted with racial discrimination and heavily biased towards the needs of
the Europeans and lacked comprehensiveness. Society did not expect the gov-
ernment to formulate longer-term development policies, since the residents felt
that they were only sojourners. And the government would not have made adap-
tive adjustments if not for situational changes both at home and abroad.
The territory of Hong Kong was expanded on two occasions, first from Hong
Kong Island to Kowloon south of Boundary Street in 1860, and then to the New
Territories south of the Sham Chun (Shenzhen) River in 1898. The territorial expan-
sions not only meant a 1,200 per cent increase in the land area compared with 1842,
but also required the government to put in more human and other resources to
exploit the new territory. Later, China was plunged into political unrest with the fall of
the Qing Dynasty, the establishment of the Republic and warlordism. The purported
neutrality of the Hong Kong government provided a better investment environ-
ment for Chinese industrialists and more jobs for grassroots labourers going down
to the south. In 1899, the government began to conceive the development of New
Kowloon, which included areas such as Kowloon Tong, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon
City, Sham Shui Po and Cheung Sha Wan. Development began to take place in the
first half of the twentieth century. As a result, those areas accommodated not only
new housing projects to ease the population density, but also factories for new and
even obnoxious industries. In the new areas opened up by the government, related
tasks were carried out in an orderly manner, such as the relocation of indigenous
inhabitants, reclamation works, land formation, construction of basic infrastructure
such as road and water supply systems, and then land auctions. The enormous inflows
of capital and human resources enabled a more diversified economic development
of Hong Kong. And the system and mechanisms of urban development in the West
were gradually introduced into the city in the first half of the twentieth century. The
Town Planning Committee was established in 1922. Government officials and social
elites were appointed to the Committee to conduct comprehensive planning for the
districts of Hong Kong. Land use was considered more carefully than in the nine-
teenth century. In 1939, the government formulated the Town Planning Ordinance,
laying the foundation for a long-term mechanism of town planning.
The focus of town planning in the 1920s and 1930s was on New Kowloon,
the urbanisation process of which made the colonial government realise the
constraints of the 99-year lease under the Convention for the Extension of Hong
Kong Territory. The impacts of short-term land leases on investors as well as on
the government’s determination to commit resources for the development of
New Kowloon were the main obstacles faced by town planning in Hong Kong in
the first half of the twentieth century. Since 1928, three consecutive governors
of Hong Kong, namely Cecil Clementi, William Peel and Geoffrey Northcote,
proposed to the British Foreign Office that the lease of the New Territories be
extended. Geoffrey Northcote even suggested purchasing the New Territories
for 20 million pounds sterling. Apparently, town planning in the twentieth
century no longer solely focused on Victoria City. A broader territory meant
greater leeway for the rulers. Anyone who thinks that these occurrences were the
consequences of the prevailing situation may wish to study carefully a complete
map of Hong Kong drawn by the colonial government in 1900 after the signing
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Conclusion · 447
of the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory. It clearly shows that all
the land south of Kowloon Peak (Fei Ngo Shan) and north of Boundary Street
was already included in Kowloon. Britain’s ambition to develop Kowloon can
be traced back to here. The prevailing developments just tied in with that ambi-
tion. Or perhaps the British had long been aware of the fact that the Republic of
China was not militarily strong enough to take back Hong Kong. In the 1920s,
the Nationalist government in Guangdong worked with local labourers to
launch strikes in Hong Kong, which, although they brought the city’s economy
to its knees, did not weaken its political status. After the strikes came to an end,
the Hong Kong government was even more confident in the city’s expansion.
With the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in the 1930s, the colonial gov-
ernment was deprived of the chance to review the effectiveness of its planning
work in the 1920s. Its mode of urban development was completely discarded
during the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong between 1941 and 1945. The
Japanese looked at Hong Kong in a way that was very different from the British
way. They even criticised the British for failing to make good use of the city’s
natural resources. After occupying Hong Kong, the Japanese defined the city as
a resource port of the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere. Taking advan-
tage of Hong Kong’s excellent geographical position, they expanded Kai Tak
Airport and strengthened Hong Kong’s role as a trans-shipment centre of mili-
tary supplies. Based on their experience in Taiwan, they promoted agriculture
and forestry in Hong Kong by extensively planting trees, introducing new agri-
cultural products. They made maximum efforts to develop natural resources and
enhance agricultural and forestry operations in the territory.
The objective conditions were indeed inadequate for Hong Kong achieving
self-sufficiency in terms of agricultural products. When the supply could not
be significantly increased, the demand had to be reduced. Measures to reduce
the local population included repatriation of the unemployed, iron-fist rule and
severe punishment of anti-Japanese individuals. Next, the Japanese redesigned
the functions and population distribution of different districts. For example,
they replanned the streets and the traffic, designating Central and Tsim Sha
Tsui as their military and administrative centre, Wan Chai as a ‘red-light’ district
for their compatriots, and Kowloon Tong as the residential area for Japanese
political dignitaries, off limits to the Chinese. There were even leaders of District
Affairs Bureaus to monitor the daily life of residents, and staple foods were being
rationed to them. Under strict military control, the daily food demand of res-
idents was forcibly reduced. During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
of three years and eight months, these iron-fist policies caused great public
indignation. We should understand that the planning strategies adopted by the
Japanese were not solely intended for Hong Kong’s benefit but instead were
based on Japan’s overall interests in the Asia-Pacific region. Agriculture and
forestry were vigorously promoted during the short-lived Japanese occupa-
tion, and their effectiveness could never be verified. However, Hong Kong was
already a trans-shipment centre of military supplies within the Greater East Asia
Co-prosperity Sphere. After the Second World War, the colonial government
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448 · MAKING HONG KONG
resumed control of Hong Kong. Disagreeing with the Japanese, they refocused
on industry and commerce.
Town planning in the post-war era was quite different from before. Some
scholars even claimed that the city’s development before the war could not be
regarded as planning. That is because urban design in the post-war era no longer
focused on key districts but instead featured city-wide planning and, more
importantly, mutually complementary functions between different districts. The
political situation was the main driving force behind heavy investments by the
British in this land of political uncertainties. After the Second World War, Britain
regained governance of Hong Kong with the support of the United States and
other Western capitalist countries. And, with the outbreak of the civil war in
China between the Nationalists and the Communists, more and more Chinese
people fled to Hong Kong. To showcase respect to the Chinese, the colonial
government focused on solving livelihood issues in various ways. It even invited
Patrick Abercrombie, a British town planner, to draw up a blueprint for Hong
Kong’s development in the following 50 years. This epoch-making idea, which
would last as long as half a century, reflected the determination of the British to
treat Hong Kong as their bridgehead in the Asia-Pacific region. The city’s long-
term economic development was the focus of planning. It involved the distribu-
tion of a series of infrastructure works such as roads, piers, the airport and even
a cross-harbour tunnel. It also stipulated the economic roles of different districts
such as the distribution of industrial and commercial areas. Abercrombie’s plan
outlined the functions of every corner of the city and had a direct impact on
Hong Kong’s development in the ensuing decades.
Another focus of urban planning was to resolve the housing problem. It went
beyond the mere pre-war emphasis on building safety. In the 1950s, resettle-
ment blocks were built in the territory to provide shelter for the grassroots. In
1972, Hong Kong launched a ten-year Housing Programme, which changed
the focus of housing policies from providing emergency relief and increasing
housing supply to proactively improving the quality of grassroots housing and
addressing related problems, such as public sanitation, population density, popu-
lation distribution, living environment and daily life ancillary facilities. Public
housing was also located in line with the needs of the processing industries for
a large pool of cheap labour, so as to solve the problem of labour shortage, and
enabled breakthrough development of the city’s economy. From the 1950s to the
1980s, the population grew by as many as 1 million every decade, far exceeding
Abercrombie’s prediction. And his proposed areas of development would have
to accommodate more people. Drawing on the experience of the Garden City
Project in the 1920s, the government established satellite towns (subsequently
renamed ‘new towns’) in New Kowloon and the New Territories. The new towns
were not far from the urban areas and were directly accessible by public transport.
In the comprehensive communities there were not only residential buildings, but
also facilities for daily needs such as medical care, education, community services,
cultural centres and open spaces. Furthermore, land was reserved for industrial
investment, so that residents could work in the same districts that they lived in
and reduce population movements to and from the core area. Investments in the
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Conclusion · 449
new towns were significant, but they were justified, since the city’s population
distribution and economic activities became more reasonable.
In 1947, the Public Works Department set up the Town Planning Office to
gather relevant information for analysis. In 1953, the Public Works Department
reorganised the Town Planning Office and for the first time set up the Town
Planning Division under the Crown Lands and Surveys Office, one of its subor-
dinate units. The Town Planning Division was responsible for town planning,
and its new mission was to coordinate the views of various government depart-
ments and formulate draft plans for the future development of the urban areas.
Town planning work gradually became systematic. In May 1946, the Town
Planning Ordinance and the Committee on Town Planning came back into oper-
ation. The Town Planning Ordinance was constantly revised in response to the
needs of society.
The development of Hong Kong was always affected by the political and
economic situation in China, which implemented the reform and opening-up
policy at the end of 1978 and changed its previous political strategies. Its poli-
cies towards Hong Kong’s future after 1997 were also different. Accordingly,
Hong Kong’s town planning had to make adaptive adjustments and alter its
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