25
. The Faculty is at present organized with the three Departments of Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering�Xeach under its own Professor with his assistant staff. We are left with the clear impression that these Departments work disjointedly and we are satisfied that a less elaborate and a less pretentious organization will amply meet the present day requirements of the University. Our main conclusions in regard to staffing this Faculty are that a single Professor will suffice instead of the present three; that he will naturally be the Tai-koo Professor of Engineering (who need not by Statute necessarily be a Professor of Mechanical Engineering), that he should be ex officio Dean of the Faculty; and that he will be assisted by a staff of Lecturers (partly we would hope recruited from the ablest products of the University itself) who in the various departments would be adequate to give instructions on the lines required- These changes when they can be carried out without injustice to the present staff would we are con-vinced result in a better organization and a better discipline throughout the Faculty as well as securing an appreciable economy.
28
. From the Departments of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering may in-time be derived in fuller measure than at present those advantages for British export trade to which we have already alluded. And we shall later on stress the desirability from this point of view of reinforcing the work of these departments.
27
. The Department of Civil Engineering must be evalued somewhat different-ly. Unlike the other two departments there is not much hope, except very in-directly, of obtaining from it those material benefits which will assist Imperial trade. For this reason it is hardly to be expected that firms in the United Kingdom wall be anxious to provide gratuitously practical post-graduate apprenticeships for the students concerned. And yet it is just in this field, taking an altruistic view, that the Hong Kong University can at present and for the next few years perhaps be of the greatest benefit to China. Nor is it surprising that this is the department which from the first attracted and still noticeably attracts the greatest number of students.
28
. A few Civil Engineers produced by the University will continue, as now, to find employment in various capacities in the Colony and also in Malaya. But as regards China proper we consider that the University should frankly face the fact that it is acting with no ulterior motives in its attempt to supply the engineers that are so urgently needed for developments of all kinds.
29
. We would go a stage further and suggest that the post-graduate training required should be deliberately provided in the Colony to such students from China in the road making, waterworks and building offices of the Public Works Depart-ment without any thought of their subsequent employment in the Colony.
30
. We are fully aware of the tendency to-day in Europe to recruit University graduates for such openings as may lead to the higher posts in commercial engineer-ing, on the principle that such recruits will probably have a better knowledge of the underlying principles of their profession than the mere technician.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
31. But such graduation in Europe is, if not preceded, invariably followed (as well as accompanied during University vacations) by a rigorous practical training in -commercial workshops. The best of laboratories, we are satisfied, is for this pur-pose of little value compared with the discipline of real workshops. Skill of a high order may be attained in the former, but there cannot be the discipline and the constant economic precautions against wastage that the workshop provides.
32
. And it is just here that, in our view, the University fails. The graduates who have profited by local practical training are found to be almost entirely non-Chinese ; and even the Chinese graduates if they go to Europe readily accommodate themselves to the environment of dock or factory. What the University's founders could not be expected to foresee was that the Chinese undergraduate during vaca-tion or the Chinese graduate after finishing his course will not take orders in Hong Kong from an uneducated foreman; and that that foreman will not give orders to that student, whether in the two large Docks or in the Railway shops or any-where else. It is seldom safe to generalise in this way, but this conclusion is forced upon us from the unanimous evidence of those who know.
33
. The other factor which the founders of the University could not foretell was the growth in recent1 years of capable rival institutions in China proper which not only provide an adequate, if not perhaps an equivalent, training at about one-fifth of the cost, but moreover have in many cases the advantage of benevolent support from elsewhere, particularly from the United States.
34
. As has already been indicated, those engineering students who after graduation have profited by the generosity and far-sighted policy of certain firms and institutions, and have undergone an apprenticeship in the United Kingdom have, according to our information, fully justified the experiment. But their total number has only been fourteen, and two of these are not of Chinese race. Incidentally we observe that out of this total nine have taken electrical training, four mechanical, and one civil.
35
. We advise that this system should be greatly expanded if this is possible, but this means that there must be constant personal contact with the English engineer-ing firms and their representatives in Hong Kong and China- We consider that Hong Kong will have done its proper share in the process by bringing the students as far as graduation, and that it is for the Imperial interests concerned to be persuaded to provide, as at present but to a greater degree, the practical workshop training whereby the objects in view can be attained. But Hong Kong University should endeavour to set aside funds for at least one two-years' scholarship to England in order to point the way to others, and to have means for bringing on some of its more brilliant men for eventual use on its own teaching staff.
36
. From what has been said it will be clear that we consider that the students selected for such a training should, apart from those required by the University itself, be such as will probably carry the "little leaven" of British engineering back into China proper rather than those who propose to earn their living in Hong Kong.
37
. We do not consider that this in any way invalidates our previous conclu-sions (a) that the Engineering Faculty should continue and (b) that its pretensions and cost should be restricted. It is clear that there is still a vast need for engineer-ing knowledge in China and it is important to retain the present framework of the Faculty ready for the expansion which a closer contact with China (and a greater realization by her of the advantages which Hong Kong University can offer) may well bring in their train. It is tempting from the immediate practical point of view to suggest that the present expenditure on the Faculty could be better employed in providing students with an engineering degree in an English provincial University with all the facilities for practical training on the spot. But there is the language difficulty; there is the danger of complete loss of touch with Chinese life and senti-ment; and there is the vital consideration of prestige.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
Medical,
38. It might seem at a first glance that much that we have said in relation to the Engineering Faculty will apply with equal force to the Medical Faculty. There were the same ideals of the founders to give an awaking China the benefits of Western science; there have been the same unforeseen developments of efficiently conducted rival institutions in China proper; and there has been, but even more markedly than in the case of Engineering, that same diffidence on the part of graduates to take their knowledge into China.
39
. It is therefore clear that, if our recommendations in the two cases are not only different but almost antithetical, some justification for such a view will be called for.
40
. We need not dwell upon the fine traditions of the old Hong Kong Medical College in the days before it became merged in the infant University. But we maintain that the present general standard of medical knowledge and practice in the Colony is today a very high one; and that this is very largely due to the presence in our midst of the Medical Faculty of the University. It is not only that in the three clinical Professors the Colony possesses consultants of a very high order; what private practitioners and Government doctors would alike admit is that the University provides a stimulus and an atmosphere which could ill be spared.
41.
Medical graduates of the University are registrable under the General Medical Council and we consider that the periodical scrutiny carried out by represen-tatives of that Council must be of great value to the Faculty, and that the prestige of such a recognition is not to be despised. In such circumstances we will not be expected to say anything about the course of instruction, except to record the fact that it seems to be universally agreed that, clinically speaking, the doctors turned out by the University may be considered to be thoroughly well trained.
42.
We have carefully considered the question of what becomes of all those highly trained doctors. From all sides we have been told that private practice in the Colony is reaching saturation point and it has even been suggested to us that further local registration of Hong Kong graduates (except for the few required by the University itself or by the Government) might well be restricted or withheld until, say, five years after graduation. With the same end in view it has been urged that by some means or other more students from China proper should be induced to take the course; and, what is even more difficult, to return to China after graduation.
43 . As regards local over-crowding of the profession, we would remark that judged by European standards the ratio of practitioners to population is still quite small. The important factor is of course the adherence of a large part of the population to Chinese harbalism. Such adherence is diminishing and surely must diminish further with the increased supply of modern-trained doctors. We cannot believe that anyone will deplore such a process-
44. We feel, however, that the high standard attained by the product of Hong Kong University would do more for the prestige of the Colony if larger numbers reached the Chinese educational centres, and while, to a great extent, the recruitment of medical students and their ultimate destinations should be left to the ordinary law of supply and demand, we think that some encouragement should be given by scholarships to students from central and north China who would, we presume, return to their birth-places. Given this encouragement for a start we are assured that parents and institutions in China will in time realize that we can give value for money.
45 . We have already suggested that the whole Colony derives benefits from the academic atmosphere of the Medical Faculty. No one can teach a subject
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
without keeping in touch (more so than tKe busy practitioner) with the latest know-ledge on his subject. And we have evidence that, there is even a certain amount of something like research, which is all to the good. We would however give our opinion that there are not enough funds at present for research in its full modern sense, which of course involves training of a very special kind and comparative freedom from teaching duties. If some benefactor will endow such an activity there is an ample field, but we do not think that the University as at present constituted should expand in this direction.
46
. The cost of the Medical Faculty for the month of January 1937, taking the same basis of calculation as in the case of Engineering, was just over 116,000. The total number of students in the same month was 129.
47
. We have given much consideration to the question of the relationship between the three clinical Professors and tihe Government Medical Service- The present situation is in the nature of a compromise resulting from discussions over a long period of years. The University has sought in this, as in other matters, to retain inviolate its independence of the Government. On the other hand the teach-ing of the students must necessarily be given in the wards of a hospital which is under Government control.
48
. This anomaly has in the past led to some friction and the compromise of giving the clinical Professors a certain number of wards and making them theoretical-ly Government servants by Gazette notice and paysheet adjustment has accentuated the anomaly and is open to the criticism of wastefulness. But from the University's point of view the system does not work badly and the difficulties of the past seem to have been resolved, to a very great extent, by the compromise arrangement made in 1930. By selection from the out-patients the clinical Professors arrange for those cases most suitable for the purposes of tuition to be allocated to their wards, and in practice the Government doctors show great consideration for the wishes of the Medical Faculty.
49
. We have given much consideration to recommendations which have been put before us (both from inside and outside the University) that the clinical Professors and the Medical teaching staff of the University should be Government servants, i.e. members of the Government Medical Service whose duties would be mainly professorial. We understand that in Singapore, mutatis mutandis, such a system is in existence and works efficiently; but there the Medical College is, we under-stand, purely a Government Institution designed for the production of doctors for service in that territory only.
50
. It has been argued that not only would this lead to less overlapping, better organization and fuller use of Government institutions by the University, but also to some economy and wider opportunities for members of the Government Medical Service generally. We feel however that this would be a retrograde step to take-There would not, we are satisfied, be any real economy in staff inuring to either the University or the Medical Service; and for many intangible reasons we feef that the atmosphere of, and the attitude of mind engendered by, a Government service are incompatible with the traditions of a University. In view of the distinguished nature of the support given to this proposal it has merited the very earnest con-sideration which we have devoted to it, but we have satisfied ourselves that it would not be in the larger interest of the University to follow up these recom-mendations, and that the compromise system, which was evolved to meet the clinical requirements, imperfect though it may be, should be left untouched.
51
. Although we make no detailed recommendation, we consider that economy would result to either Government or University by the amalgamation of the University School of Pathology and the Government Bacteriological Institute, and we see no insuperable objection to this fusion. A further amalgamation deserving of close study is between the Biology Department and the Government's Botanical Department.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
52. We turn now to the vexed question of consultant practice. Representa-tions have been made to us that the actual practice of the clinical Professors has not always been in accord with Statute No. 3, Section 11, of the University Ordinance. On the evidence before us we are of the opinion that the continuance of consultant practice by the clinical Professors is in the best interest both of the public of the Colony and of the University. But we re-affirm the importance of strict adherence to the spirit as well as the letter of the rule govern-
ing consultant practice embodied in the University Ordinance, which reads as
follows :�X
" Professors and lecturers whose services are exclusively at the disposal
of the University shall not, during the tenure of their appointments, engage in professional practice except in a consultative capacity and with the approval of the University Council."
Arts.
53
. The Arts Faculty seems to us to have attached itself like some half-un-wanted stepbrother to those two scientific Faculties which, to the founders at least, gave such promise of a sturdy manhood. It was felt no doubt that the materialism of Medicine and Engineering should be offset by a course which should include Ethics and Philosophy and the humanities generally. Later on the Chamber of Commerce was induced to contribute towards the support of a department where Economics and something like Accountancy could be taught (this contribution has ceased, but the department goes on). And finally a Chinese School was founded to carry on the tradition of China's antique culture. Meanwhile the Government Education Department seized the opportunity of the existence of a University and was provided with a course of training for the most promising material from its secondary schools to become teachers in Government and Aided schools.
54
. There had probably been a vague idea that some of the Arts graduates would in time emerge as political leaders in China. That dream, we understand, lias almost entirely failed to come true up to the present, and we doubt if Nanking's recent decision to admit Hong Kong graduates to her examinations for official posts will materially improve matters; and it appears that the Arts degree is now con-sidered to be little more than the crowning of Hong Kong's secondary education for those whose parents can afford it, together with a certain number from Malaya and the Dutch East Indies.
55
. So long as this is frankly recognized, we consider that there is much to be said for such an ideal. We would go further and say that an engineer will be a better engineer and a doctor will be a better doctor by social intercourse during his training with students in a non-technical Faculty. A virile School of English and a virile School of Chinese are obvious necessities in a University such as this. And it is worth recording here that the Arts Faculty shares with one or both of the other Faculties the Departments of Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics and Biology.
56
. Bearing in mind this aspect of the Arts Faculty being a continuation of the general education provided in the Colony's secondary schools, we feel strongly that a closer liaison with the Education Department of the Government is desirable.
57
. The Director of Education is ex officio a member of the Senate, but, apart from Matriculation standards, it is difficult to see how the Medical and Engineering Faculties can be his concern. On the other hand if there is to be a unified general education in the Colony it would seem desirable that he should have a place in the Arts Faculty. The Government Medical Department has, we under-stand, a representative in the University's Medical Faculty, so that the principle is not a new one; in the Arts Faculty the justification seems to us even stronger.
58
. To strengthen that liaison we consider that steps should be taken to implement the University's authority, under section 4 (7) of the Ordinance, to have
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
some say in the pre-graduate education of the Colony. If the Arts Faculty of the
University is to become less self-contained so also must the Government's Education Department.
59
. In particular it seems essential that the Chinese School at the University should become less of a watertight compartment than at present. We contemplate the teaching of Chinese in the Colony, and the relation of that teaching to English studies, as a well thoughtout and unified system reaching from the elementary school to University graduation.
60
. On the basis of calculation already employed in the other Faculties the cost of the Arts Faculty for the month of January 1937 was over $ 14,000 and the total number of students in the Faculty in the same month was 114.
61
. It is not easy for us to criticize such a thing as a curriculum but we are satisfied that there is need of rigorous pruning in this Faculty as soon as this can, without injustice to the existing staff, be accomplished. We have been constrained to think that as at present constituted the Faculty is following a 'curriculum not altogether suited for its "clientele". We feel that it has been modelled too closely on the lines of an English University, and that this induces an atmosphere of un-reality. Many of the courses can have no real interest or final meaning for Chinese, and we are extremely doubtful whether the Department of Commerce can justify its existence. The courses given therein (particularly in the subject of Ac-countancy) ibear no real relation to the actual practice of commerce in China, where development of joint-stock companies lags behind and where few busines organiza-tions have been developed beyond the size which can be controlled by members of a single family.
62
. We are also conscious of a certain lack of co-ordination in the Arts Faculty. At a later stage of this Report we will criticize the existing practice of annually appointed Deans; and it is in this Faculty that the need both for internal discipline and for a consistent policy seems to us to be chiefly felt.
63
. Even more than in the Engineering Faculty, we feel that there are far too many full Professors in this Faculty.
64
. The Arts Faculty Department of Education as at present run seems to us to be a very expensive method of turning out a few qualified teachers, and a scrutiny of the time-tables concerned only confirms that view- We refrain from further comment except to say (a) that here even more than with the rest of the Faculty the need of close liaison with the Government Education Department is necessary �Xif only because the Government provides the cost of the training of many of the students concerned; (b) that this Department seems to us to be much too self-contained and too independent of the rest of the Faculty; and (c) that a Professor of Education is wholly unnecessary once the subject-groups are settled and that an efficient Master of Method available for practical training is all that is required.
65
. The Chinese School seems to us to have promise of a vigorous future under its able Professor. Considering its potential utility, its cost is not extravagant. It deserves every support and encouragement, and its expansion would provide a fair ground for endowments from well-wishing Chinese benefactors. The same is true of the Chinese Library which we understand needs considerable enlarge-ment. If the approach were properly made we feel sure that the sympathy of the Chinese, who alone are concerned, could be enlisted for this purpose.
66
. Throughout our inquiry we have kept in mind the primary object of the University to establish contact with China and to provide something of value to China. Most Universities worthy of the name will be found to have established in process of the time some special reputation for a particular course of training or even for a particular habit of mind. And we have been led to consider what particular contribution to knowledge could best be made by a University in such a unique geographical and political situation as Hong Kong.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
67.
The answer is not far to seek. On the one side is China at last showing signs of becoming politically vertebrate, floundering between democrary and dicta-torship, trying to omit all the intervening evolutionary stages- On the other hand a Crown Colony with all the constitutional safeguards of political science (except the ballot-box) clearly defined.
68.
The time may not be ripe and certainly the funds are not yet available. But we have visions of an Arts Faculty that would specialise in Political Theory, not as something as dead as an axiom of Euclid, but more in its historical and evolutionary aspect. Lecturers would be invited from Chinese Universities to keep that side of the historical question in view. Every few years there could even perhaps be a course of lectures from someone from England with sufficient amplitude of mind to realise what was expected of him. Above all there should be that complete freedom of thought and freedom of discussion which is as vital as fresh air where a University is concerned.
If such a dream could even partially be realised it is difficult to see what might not be the consequences on Asia and on -civilization.
Salary Scales.
69. After careful consideration we have come to the conclusion that the scale of salaries recommended in the Gollan Report of 1929 was needlessly high. We have reached that conclusion 'keeping well in mind the cost of living in Hong Kong, the standard of living which it is desirable for a University staff to maintain and the problem of recruiting. The Gollan scale was:�X
(1)
Vice-Chancellor :�X�G2,400 per annum.
(2)
Registrar:�X�G1,100 per annum, rising by �G50 annually to �G1,450.
(3)
Professors:�X�G1,100 per annum, rising by �G50 annually to �G1,450-
(4)
Readers:�X�G850 per annum, rising by �G50 annually to �G1,100.
(5)
Senior Lecturer in English :�X�G750 per annum, rising by �G40 to �G950.
(6)
Junior Lecturer in English :�X�G600 per annum, rising by �G40 to �G680.
(7)
Lecturers in General:�X�G700 per annum, rising by �G40 to �G900.
70. At the present time members of the University staff are paid on the Gollan scale less 10%, so that the effective scale of the above salaries at present is :�X
(1) �G2,160
(2) �G990-45-1305
(3) 990-45-1305
(4) 765-45-990
(5) 675-36-855
(6) 540-36-612
(7) 630-36-810
71 . The following particulars of remuneration in Universities in Great Britain are of interest and give the average salary for the various grades :�X
Total number in Average Great Britain. Salary.
Professors 842- �G1,094
Readers, Assistant Professors and
independent Lecturers 364 661 Lecturers 1,382 471 Assistant Lecturers and Demonstrators. 831 310 Others 251 383
3,670
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
72. It is worth noting that of those professors no less than 192 receive less than �G950, 221 professors are on the mark �G951/�G1,000, 75 on the mark �G1,001/�G1,100 and 123 �G1,101/�G1,200; that is to say that, of the total of 842 given above, only 231 receive salaries of over �G1,200 per annum.
73
. It must be noted that members of the University staff are provided with living accomodation or given a housing allowance in lieu, and draw other allowances of appreciable monetary value. Further it is perhaps justifiable to point out that Hong Kong does not obtain and, in fact, does not require the University professor of such exceptional academic attainments as might claim emoluments on the scale paid for the leading professorial posts in the United Kingdom.
74
. Except for the consolidation of the existing 10% deduction, we do not propose any alteration in pay for the existing staff. Nor do we wish to suggest a hard and fast scale to be applied in the future. For future recruits the basis of remuneration should be determined by:�X
(a)
academic qualifications,
(b)
age; and the level of salaries currently paid in the United Kingdom should be a suf-ficient guide in arriving at a fair remuneration, with compensating allowance made for residence abroad and consequent separation from academic circles at home. In any case we feel that there are obvious objections to settling, as at present, a flat scale of salaries for all Professors in the several Faculties. We suggest also that in future appointments a slower scale of increment should be applied than has been the practice in the past, so that as a general rule a Professor would not attain his maximum salary until about the age of 50. In passing we note with ap-preciation that recent appointments to the University staff have been made on a
lower basis than the Gollan scale, and that able recruits have been obtained on this basis.
75 . We have the following comments to make on specific salaries:�X
The Demonstrator in Electrical Engineering and the Instructor in Workshop Practice both seem to us to be far too highly remunerated for the work they are carrying out, and the former post is one that could in our opinion very well be filled by a graduate of the University.
76
. We are of opinion that the gradual process of arriving at the reduced staffing which we have suggested in earlier paragraphs and at the more economical remuneration which is implicit in the two preceding paragraphs could be accelerated by some scheme of grants to supplement their respective superannuation fund ac-cumulations in the case of those older professors who may themselves be desirous of retiring and with whose services the University may be willing to dispense.
77
. Having regard to the effect which continued residence in the semi-tropical climate of Hong Kong may have on the individual it is proposed that all future terms of service should lay it down that the age at which a professor should normal-ly retire will be 55 with the proviso that should the University require his services he will not be released until 60.
Organization.
78 . Although we are clearly empowered by our terms of reference to state our views on such subjects as organization and interior discipline, it is with some diffidence that we, as outside observers, broach such questions. In mitigation it is perhaps justifiable to observe that all four members of our Committee, even though. it is a Government Committee, are in fact actually on the Council of the University, and therefore not only "Members of the University" as defined in Statute 2 of the University Ordinance, but also have a place in that body (section 11 (2) of the Ordinance) which is described as having in its care "the government and control of the affairs of the University''.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
79. We have not inquired as to the model or models upon which the constitu-tion of the University, as set out in the Ordinance quoted, was based; but we would suggest that the requirements of such an institution, separated by ten thousand miles from the academic traditions and atmosphere of the United Kingdom, may very well be wholly different from the requirements of a University in England. And we would say at once that in our opinion the existing constitution is too "democratic" and too cumbrous for local needs.
80 . According to section 8 (1) of the Ordinance the Vice-Chancellor:�X
'' shall be the chief administrative officer of the University, and shall have such powers and duties as the Council shall assign to him"
So far as we are aware the Council has never defined those powers or those duties and the Statutes are silent on this point. It would indeed seem that his statutory powers are limited to a single vote, liable to be overruled by the majority, in Senate, Council and Court. We would suggest that he should be given definite authority to give orders to his staff and such statutory powers as would ensure, without further ado, that those orders are obeyed.
81. As regards the Senate, we are strongly of the opinion that its sphere should be rigidly confined to academic matters and that all else should be liable to be ruled, under Statute, to "be out of order. This would seem to be implicit under the specific terms of seventeen of the eighteen paragraphs of Statute 10, but the wrhole of these are nullified by the very wide terms of paragraph 8 of that Statute, which reads :�X
"To discuss and declare an opinion on any matter whatsoever relating to the University''.
The simple deletion of that paragraph would in our opinion be of great advantage to the discipline of the University.
82 . Even though the question may in practice only very rarely arise we consider that the present almost invulnerable status of the members of the staff ensured by Statute 17 of the Ordinance might easily be dangerous. The machinery for removing an incompetent lecturer, for example, whatever may be the terms of his original agree-
ment, seems to us to be unnecessarily cumbrous under that Statute; and we consider that the publicity entailed by the existing necessity of taking such a case before a body such as the full Court is undesirable. The individual concerned must be fully entitled to appeal against any such decision; but the decision, we are satisfied, should original-ly lie with the Council, or even with the Vice-Chancellor subject to the Council's �Econfirmation.
83 . A further point under the same Statute presents itself. Apart from lunacy or something like criminal misconduct, the only "Good Cause" which can be shown seems to be the rather vague "actual incapacity". We do not fully under-stand the meaning of this term but it seems at least arguable that incompetence, indolence, indiscipline, and a number of other undersirable characteristics could never be quoted as a grounds for removal. We consider that this should be remedied and that no member of the staff should feel that he is invulnerable until retiring age.
84. The periodical election of Deans of the Faculties under Statute 3 (5) appears to us to <be undesirable from the point of view of discipline, and it is not easy for us to see the objections to the senior professor being ex officio Dean of his Faculty, his place while on leave being naturally filled by the next senior. We observe that the annual election which obtains in the Engineering and Arts Faculties has become triennial in the Medical Faculty, presumably because the General Medical Council sees the same objections as we do to annual terms. We do not see why this principle should not be still further extended in the direction of permanent and non-elective appointments.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
Miscellaneous.
85. We have been conscious throughout our inquiry that the old tradition of China in the matter of the aim and object of education still to a great extent persists even in such a modern environment as that of the Hong Kong University. By this we mean the tradition that the passing of a difficult examination is the ultimate goal, and that on the strength of such an achievement the successful scholar may expect to face the rest of life with the equanimity which assured position and a steady in-come secure. We do not pretend that our graduates are like those aspirants to office in pre-Revolutionary China who continued, often until late in life, to strive for the material rewards of scholarship. But we are sensible of a feeling that graduation is an end in itself rather than a mere milestone on the road of prepara-tion for life.
86
. We are therefore of the opinion that the " University Employment Com-mittee ", which we observe to exist in the pages of the University Calendar, should come to life and set itself to devise means by which students might be helped to secure suitable employment after graduation. We think, moreover, that this Com-mittee might be improved by a wider personnel, such for example as representative Chinese officials, leaders in China's educational service, distinguished Hong Kong graduates, and the like.
87
. We are also conscious of what is perhaps another phase of the same tendency, namely that the University seems to lose touch too readily with its students after graduation. The University is still young and it is hardly to be expected that there will yet be much in the way of sentimental attraction. But we feel that any-thing which can be done to foster " Alumni Associations " cannot fail to bear fruit. It is chiefly so that fresh students can be attracted; and the time might even come when such graduates might be disposed to give practical effect to their loyalty by combining to provide scholarships or in many other ways- But the loyalty must first be there.
88
. As regards the recruitment of teaching staff we cannot but feel that the University has become too stereotyped in its methods; there are whole-time lecturers recruited from home for life; there are some whole-time lecturers recruited for a short term of years; there are local part-time lecturers; and there are a few Hong Kong graduates. We do not wish to say more than that certain other avenues are at least worthy of exploration :�X(a) interchange of teachers with the leading Chinese Universities; (b) temporary employment of some of the lecturers sent out to China by the "Universities' China Committee"; (c) arrangements with certain local mis-sionary bodies (notably the Jesuits) who may have persons fully qualified for lectureships, etc. *
89
. In our opinion "'Study Leave" has sometimes been accorded in the past with too little consideration. There should, for example, obviously be safeguards to prevent an officer of the University obtaining at its expense certain qualifications and, by his early resignation, reaping the benefits himself; we understand that Government servants are more strictly bound in this respect than the University staff. But apart from this we feel that for Hong Kong the initial qualifications required should generally suffice without the expense of further long courses of study in England.
90
. We recommend that the Finance Committee should carefully scrutinize the existing rules regarding passages. The number of children to be carried at the University's expense may need definition; and we think that it is possible that there are cases where the grant of a Second Class passage instead of First Class might not be inconsistent with the dignity of the University.
91^ We recommend that in future no benefaction in the form of a new building should be accepted unless it is accompanied by an adequate endowment for its main-tenance and upkeep.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
92. In our recommendations on the subject of the various Faculties we have tried to emphasize our opinion that the true vocation of the University is, its founders realised, the training of students from China. Unless this aim is kept steadfastly in view we are satisfied that nothing of lasting value can be achieved.
Two candidates are at present selected periodically in Yunnanfu for scholar-ships, and we are given to understand that when this takes place it is regarded as an event of the ftrsfc magnitude in the educational life of the province.
We should like to see the same in Hankow and Tientsin and Amoy and a num-ber of places. (We exclude Shanghai as being too analogous to our own Colony). We have an ultimate vision of an annual influx of say 25 of such students, which would require an annual outgoing on scholarships of about $100,000, which should, if our recommendations are loyally accepted by the University, be available in course of time. We are not so pessimistic as to think that such a vision is unattain-able.
93 . We desire to express our gratitude to the Vice-Chancellor and the staff of the University who have without fail given us all the information that we could desire. In particular the Registrar, Mr. W. B. Finnigan, has been unsparing in providing us with data on a large scale.
94. Mr. J. H. B. Lee has performed his duties as Secretary with tact and efficiency. We have made him work long hours of overtime both on week days and at week ends. Miss Budden of the Colonial Secretary's Office has been given a good deal of additional typing in the preparation of material for this Report, and has done it well.
N. L. SMITH, (Chairman).
SHOUSON CHOW, )
J. R. MASSON, !�E Members.
A. MORSE, j
HONG KONG,
March, 1937.
Illus. 5.5 (Continued)
this University during the past few years, we cannot help reflecting seriously upon the disappointing condition of Chinese studies in this Colony, (p. 3)
... The teaching of narrow patriotism, 'the last refuge of scoundrels/ and nationalism must be rooted out from all schools' curriculum. We, as educa-tionists, must see that education is directed towards internationalism rather than nationalism, and philanthropy rather than patriotism, and that the chil-dren are taught the bestiality of war and the nobility of peace. Above all, we must develop in the young mind the idea of International Socialism, (p. 11)
(d) Fr. G. Byrne, The Problem of Education in Hong Kong7, 8 (November 1933), 13-18.
[Quoting the first Report of G.N. Orme, living's successor] 'Our task then is to obtain an adequate and qualified staff and a suitable curriculum: as regards private schools to give such assistance as we may without unduly limiting their freedom.' Orme then dwells on the temptation for parents, teachers and pupils to make of the school a short cut to the office stool, from which it follows that 'the foundation of the pupil's life, which can only be based on an understanding of his mother tongue, will be deserted for the more profitable study of English, and second, external results will be sought in preference to real mental and moral progress.' To be noted that 'whereas the opinion of a doctor is readily accepted as a test of health, the opinion of a teacher carries little weight as a test of education; yet it should form the true test.' We can only say that if the teacher can once deserve and command the confidence of the public, this test will be possible and we shall be near a solution of the problem.
The 'Pari-Passu' System
To meet the dual language demand, whether it be the outcome of 'com-mercial' necessity or of cultural aspirations, the pari-passu system was adopted. This meant that at an early stage the pupil mixed up parsing and analysis with the pictorial beauty of the characters. The results do not seem to have been happy. I quote from the memorandum of Mr. Woo, drawn up two years ago: 'The inconsistency of the system lies in this that, whereas a student is not admitted to an English class unless his knowledge of Chinese reaches a certain standard, he is not bound to use his endeavours to improve his knowledge of Chinese after he has been admitted to an English class, although he is expected to attend a Chinese class at the same time.'
After his admission a student may, and usually does, devote his real energy to his English studies. Neither teacher nor pupil takes any interest in a Chinese class. On the part of the pupil his attendance in the Chinese school is a necessary evil which must be put up with. On the part of the teacher all his energies are devoted to the enforcement of discipline which he can only attain by submitting to the will of the pupils.'
Since its institution it would seem that the Junior Examination had a good deal to do with the orientation of the Secondary School curriculum. In 1924, as we saw, Mr. Orme considered a suitable curriculum a problem of the future. This year has killed the Junior and proposes a wider type of curriculum. What will be the result?
The Core of the Problem
But the core of the problem seems to be rightly placed by Mr Orme in the
character of the teacher and his methods rather than in the actual books which the scholar puts aside, not altogether regretfully, with the label taught...
. . . The further question arises 'should the task of learning the Chinese language so that a Chinese boy of 18 might acquire the same proficiency in his language as an English boy of 18 in his, really demand an extra four years of study?' It would seem that many modern educationalists among the Chinese answer the question in the negative. They contend that it was so, owing to faulty methods of teaching, but whilst making due allowance for the charac-ters versus an alphabet of 26 letters, there should not be such a disproportion.
Hong Kong has been faced with these problems since the optimistic days of the [eighteen] fifties. She is still faced with them. From time to time, she bestirs herself, yawns, examines the curriculum; puts a new coat of paint on her schools. When the paint wears off with the lapse of years, she discovers that the old legend had never really been effaced. There is still an education problem. Will it ever be solved? Or must each generation discover an Einstein-ian solution in multiplying its education factors by the square root of minus one? Such, in a nut shell, is the Hong Kong problem of education which we offer to your discussion this evening.
(e)
W.J. Dyer, 'The English Language in Local Education', (January 1939), 13-15.
.. . In the early years no subject should be taught in English except English. During four years with efficient teaching pupils should be able to learn sufficient English to allow them to read ordinary books and newspapers, to converse in and write simple English, and if necessary to pursue further courses using that language as the medium of instruction. A typical pupil's school career would then follow this course: up to 10 years of age a primary course in his own language, with possibly simple oral English included in the last two years; he would then proceed to the post-primary or Secondary course commencing with four years in which English would be included as a subject, but all instruction would continue in Chinese; for the next three years, with an appropriate transition period, he would receive instruction through the medium of English, at the end of which he would sit his School Leaving Certificate, his final year at school would be in preparation for a University entrance examination.
(f)
Wu Hei Tak, 'Education as a Business', (January 1939), 35-40.
.. . The English reading public of this Colony may be kept ignorant about this, but any educated Chinese has only to turn to his daily newspaper, and he will find a whole sheet full of advertisements, not for Metro-G-M., or of the Tiger Balm, but of SCHOOLS!...
Nearly every school, from the biggest to the smallest, has its advertise-ments, and the smaller the school, the bigger the type used .. . To begin with, they all crown their names with a string of titles, so as to impress ignorant parents with their qualifications, just as a new graduate does with his B.A. These titles are usually the names of the different authorities where they have registered. These authorities are usually the Board of Education in China and the Committee for Overseas Chinese Affairs .. . Some schools even lengthen their titles with an obvious and unnecessary one, the Hong Kong Education Department. These titles mean or hint that pupils from these schools can go back to China to study after they have finished school. However, these titles are quite worthless, for even the smallest school, which occupies a flat of two rooms, can get its name registered.
... Great care has been taken to choose the names of these money making institutions. An ordinary school occupying one storey of a flat would call itself a college...
... The usual salary for a teacher in such a school is about one-third of that of the government schools. But, owing to the growing number of unemployed people, and the large influx of unemployed educated people from China as a result of the war, even this humble rate is reduced. I am told by one of these unfortunate employees that an undergraduate from the National Ching Hua University is being exploited at a salary, or better, wages, of $5 per month, excluding board and lodging. Another extreme case is that a certain M.A., whether he is genuine or not, is working at $40 per month. This means that some of them are working from 9 to 4 every day, shouting to 30 or 40 pupils, at a 'salary7 worse than that of a shop assistant or even of some amahs.
I wonder whether modern communists would call such teachers as ex-ploited by these schools proletariat or not.
... What is the result of this misery? Many of these teachers try to live up to the genteel world by teaching after school hours. They become private tutors or teachers in night schools. Thus they work for almost ten hours a day, with little time to rest, to say nothing of advancing . . . [their] own studies. Their knowledge becomes stale, and their work falls into a mechanical repro-duction of the bits of knowledge that they have picked up in their student days. Their sole object, like their employers, is money, but it is money for sheer existence. As for the pupils, they do not care whether they are really educated at all, and this is precisely the prevailing condition in at least half of the private schools in the Colony.
(g) T.C. Cheng, 'Changes in Local Vernacular Schools' (January 1939), 46-52 (Illus. 5.6).
-46-
CHANGES IN LOCAL VERNACULAR SCHOOLS.
Within the last twenty years there have taken place many changes and improvements in local vernacular schools. In this article, I am only trying to make a general survey of the development o�G such schools from my own experience and observation.
Twenty years ago, the number of schools and students was much smaller than now. The schools then were very primitive and elementary. The most typical of these was 'the Hok Shuk (*pl?t). This type of school usually com-prised one teacher, and about ten pupils. The teacher who was in fact the founder, director and headmaster in one, was in nine cases out of ten an old classical scholar, often in straitened circumstances, whose only profession was teaching, and whose knowledge was entirely derived from the classics. The way the boys were educated was quite akin to that by which Tom Tulliver was educated by Mr. Stelling�X" ... . With the same unerring instinct Mr. Stelling set to work at his natural method of instilling the Eton grammar and Euclid into the mind of Tom Tulliver
A Hok Shuk seldom occupied more than one flat of an ordinary house. This humble flat, however, served a two-fold purpose. It was not only a school but the teacher's home, subject to the noisy distractions of the nursery.
The range of subjects taught was definitely very limited. Besides reading, writing, and the reciting of Chinese Classics there was only a little arithmetic. No one ever dreamed of introducing such aesthetic subjects as singing and drawing into the Hok Shuk, and of course physics and chemistry were not known to the venerable teacher. Individual work and the spirit of co-operation which are strongly emphasized in modern classrooms, took a very unique form in the Hok Shuk. Thus you might see one pupil or another coming back to school earlier than usual in the morning to help the teacher's wife or daughter to sweep the floor or to boil some water.
Somewhat better than the Hok Shuk were the primi-tive small-scaled schools. These developed into the modern
Illus. 5.6 Extracts from T.C. Cheng, 'Changes in Local Vernacular Schools'.
�X 47 ~
middle schools, while the Hok Shuks gradually died away. A school of this sort had a seven years' course. It was usually managed by less than five teachers (part-time teachers icnluded) and had only about sixty or seventy students. The whole school building occupied three large rooms with two, three, or even four classes packed into each. Therefore a teacher had to manage more than two classes at a time. This sounds ridiculous�Xany sensible person would admit, but it was actually the case though 1 hope it is now a thing of the past.
To quote an instance from my own life�XWhen I first went to school, to one of this sort, there were altogether four classes in the room to which I belonged. I myself formed the sole pupil in the " first year class." My brother and five others comprised the " second year class " while ten others, the " third year class." The rest were the " fourth year class." There were altogether about thirty pupils in the room and all under the able management of one teacher. The arrangement of the lessons was as fol-lows : When the teacher was taking the " fourth year class," the " third year class " would be revising and learn-ing the old lessons by heart, and the " second year class " would be writing or composing short essays. And when the teacher was taking the " third year class," the " fourth year class " would be revising and the " second year class " would be still going on with writing, and so on. (In fact the time spent in school was mainly devoted to writing, memorizing and reciting, without making much use of the faculty of understanding.) As to me, I was simply nothing at all. The teacher seemed to ignore me completely. Quite contrary to to-day's idea of allotting seats to the students, I, the youngest and smallest, was deposited at the back of the room, always unseen and disregarded. There, I could do anything I liked except making noise or disturbing my neighbours. I usually spent some time in learning how to write by tracing the outlines of characters printed in books, but, to be frank, most of my time was spent in daydreaming. Sometimes, however, I managed to make myself noticed or seen by the teacher, and then he would tell a boy in cither of the three classes to stop writing or reading to come next to me and to teach me the " three-character classic"�Xmy only text-book. (This book, con-taining only sentences of three characters, has quite deep philosophical ideas and is rather a pleasant book.) I was
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
-48-
to learn each sentence by heart with no explanations what-ever. But, just the same, I was expected to be able to recite them one or two days later. This I did accordingly, like a parrot. In fact I was very happy and willing too,. because, firstly, I had something definite and concrete to work upon and spend my time, and secondly, I thought that that was my sole duty and object in going to school.
Now this school which I first attended about seven-teen years ago was by no means a bad or depraved one. In fact, it was, as it is now, one of the best-known schools in the city, and I think I am quite justified in taking it to represent the average school of that time, and thence to-proceed to give my description of the school teachers, dis-cipline, and the subjects taught then.
As regards the teachers, they were almost every one un-^ worthy of the name of their profession. Their qualifica-tions were doubtful and their training inadequate. Unlike teachers nowadays who like to show off their strings of titles, the alma maters of the old days could seldom or never be detected. They seemed to have emerged from nowhere. Though they were educators themselves, yet most of them did not have any clear notion of what educa-tion was at all. To them education chiefly meant flogging, the causing of " sounds of the Ululantes " and the produc-ing of " glances of Tartarus." They were teachers of the " good old grind " type. They upheld what Mr. Dooley says in fun: "It does not matter very much what the children learn, so long as it is disagreeable enough." In-side the classroom, they knew nothing about methods of teaching; and they had no clear idea at all how to approach any new subject. The temper of the teachers often went to extremes. The old and feeble ones were dull and gloomy but easy-going. The younger ones, on the other hand, were harsh and unreasonable, though on the whole better and more energetic.
The discipline was severe. The students had to observe the " divine right " of teachers. What they said must be right and therefore obeyed. They never looked upon the students as beings who had characters and " selves." In their presence, the students must not be anything at all. Such shameful harshness never failed to create fear in the children's minds, and, with constant fear instilled into them,
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
- 49 -
obviously they could not understand the lessons as they ought. My own experience verifies this.
The teacher of arithmetic in my school was a very stern and unreasonable man. He knew nothing about the psychology of children or methods of teaching. One day, after explaining a new lesson to us, he asked me to do a problem on the board. I could not; I was caned and was told to stand up in front of the class while he went over the lesson again, expecting me to listen and understand this time. But�Xhow could I be listening to him when I was sobbing and when my heart was burning inside with anger and hatred?�Xwho could help feeling that I was wronged? However, I was told to do the sum again; I failed and received a second punishment. From that time onward, he kept a special eye on me and whenever he could, he would try to find fault with me, so that at the sight of him, fear would arise in my mind. In such a state, I was seldom able to understand him, and this again never failed to bring me punishment.
The subjects taught in the schools then were very iestricted. They were Chinese classics, literature and poetry, essay-writing, history, geography and a little fragment of elementary science, and English. With the exception of arithmetic, we had to recite almost everything that was taught. With regard to physical training, open air rest and play, drawing crafts work and other such subjects, the boys never had any idea of them. The schools then were all run on a small scale. They had neither play-grounds, nor a spare room for teachers, nor even a ping-pong table. But the fact was that playing, running and noises of all sorts within the schools were strictly prohibited, so that even paperwork done by the students during their spare time would be destroyed when seen, and the makers were liable to be punished�Xprobably for not spending that little bit of precious time to recite more classics. Even during recess, which was after all ten minutes, we had to stay in the classroom. Only two at a time were allowed to go out to wash their hands, and then to return to the classroom. Such schools were no better than prisons!
To summarize, the schools fifteen or twenty years ago tended to produce shy, dull, sullen and gloomy youngsters with pale faces and weak physique, and with very little knowledge or common sense. They were far from sociable.
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
�X 50 �X
In fact, after the seven \ ears' schooling, they had nothing but inferiority complexes in them. They were slaves to others' ideas and were only fit to become followers and servants. They could never dream of taking the lead in anything. The definition that education is a preparation for life was definitely inapplicable to such schooling and training, for it was certainly after they had left school that they began to learn things, whether great or small, so as to adapt themselves to society.
However, these unsatisfactory results gradually drew the attention of the public, and with the increase of students and the desire of parents for more knowledge for their children, the general demand that local vernacular schools should be improved was rife. Thanks to the help, advice and guidance of able educationalists from the interior of China and returned students from abroad, changes were slowly brought about. In these changes, it was only natural that they should turn to Canton and other places in China for models and inspiration.
Since 1917, American educational thoughts and system have definitely exerted the major influence upon Chinese education. This was chiefly due to the stimulation caused by the wide and rapid expansion of American education in tne first decades of the present century, and also to the intimate relations that had existed between China and America for some years.
In 1921, the " New School System " was passed at the annual conference of the National Federated Provincial Educational Associations held in Canton. In the following year, the government, after careful consideration, adopted it. The keynote of this system is the American 6-3-3 plan. The primary school course takes six years, while the middle school course is divided between three years of general work and three years of vocational or college preparation, to be called junior and senior middle schools respectively.
As soon as this New School System was adopted there was much development both in quality and in quan-tity in the schools in China. But the influence of this system on the Colony was not noticeably felt until about the year 1927 when a few large middle schools began to take shape. These modern schools have always tried, as
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
�X 51 -
far as the education department allows, to follow the cur riculum of the schools in China, using the same textbooks, and having the same subjects. *
With this change of the school system, there came also an entire change in the atmosphere of the school. The school no longer resembles a prison. The students now enjoy much more freedom than their predecessors. The teachers are all quite properly trained, and prove to be very efficient. Their attitude towards the stvidents is no longer severe and unreasonable, and the tie between the teacher and the pupil is close, and lasting.
Besides mandarin, many new subjects, which are neces-sary to the better development of the different faculties are introduced. Music, painting, handiwork, physical training and hygiene are among the new general subjects. In the middle school, however, the students have to touch upon such learned subjects as logic, psychology, ethics and biology, and in some, zoology and botany are also included in the svllabus.
Due to the many changes and reforms in these schools, it is only logical to suppose that the type of youngsters pro-duced by them should be quite different from that produced by schools fifteen or twenty years ago. This is really so, for the boys who come out from these schools are quite the opposite of their predecessors. They are lively and sportive. Nearly all of them take part in some sport, and are, therefore, physically strong and healthy. Due to the many activities thev have in school, such as concerts, de-bates, discussions, and meetings, etc., they are practically all sociable and energetic." As the range of subjects in school is extended, the knowledge acquired when they leave school is pretty wide. All these contribute to promote their social position in society to a higher level.
Now though the results of the New School System are satisfactory and up to a certain standard, yet 'hey can be improved. What I bring out in the following applies not only to local schools but al.=o to all the schools through-out China. My point is that the 6-3-3 P^an wastes too much of the students' time. This may seem to be a rash statement but it is based upon solid ground. When one examines the curriculum of the schools, one will realize where the defects lie. To furnish a concrete example, let us first take the subject, geography. During the six years
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
�X 52 �X
in the elementary school, a boy is first taught the geography of his locality, then that of the province he is in, then that of China and then generally that of the world. However, in his first two years in the junior middle school he has to learn the geography of China all over again�Xwith further details, and similarly in his third year he has to learn the geography of the world again. Still, this seems not enough, for out of the three years in the senior middle school, the first two years are again devoted to the geography of China. Similarly the following half year is devoted to the geography of the world, while the remaining half year is spent on physical geography which is something entirely new.
Obviously, at least two points can be raised against this arrangement. Firstly, too much time is given to revi-sion; secondly, physical geography should not�Xin fact it cannot�Xbe taught isolated from the other branches of geography. Similarly, the first point can also be applied to criticize the history syllabus as well as some others.
In mathematics, however, the defect takes another form. In the junior middle school, a student is supposed to have done experimental and solid geometry. But in the senior middle school, he has to learn the same things again,�X the only difference being that this time he has to learn them through the medium of English. The apparent justi-fication and explanation for so doing is that Senior middle school students must learn more English. But is it worth while to spend two or three hours a week to learn a few geometrical terms? After all is there much English to be learnt in a geometry lesson? Why should we not openly and exclusively devote such periods to English? This would be more sensible.
I think I have made my point quite clear. Now there are two remedies to this. The first is to shorten the 6-3-5 plan to a 6-2-2 or 6-3-2 plan, the range and contents of the subjects taught remaining the same. But then the average age for students to enter the university is 16 or 17. Some educationalists may object to this, saying that this is too early an age to enter the university. The other remedy is to
w^tn some new
keep the 6-3-3 P^an subjects (such as astronomy, etc.) added to the curriculum. However this is a very serious question and is to be discussed by learned, experienced and serious educationalists.
T. C. CHENG.
Illus. 5.6 (Continued)
22. Extracts from the Papers of Laneclot Forster, first Professor of Education, University of Hong Kong, in Rhodes House Library, Oxford University, Mss. Ind. Ocn. s.177,1-5.
Lancelot Forster came to Hong Kong at the very beginning of this period to be employed as an Education Officer, teaching at Queen's College. Later he became the first Professor of Education at the University and this fact might be related to Sir William Brunyate's ideas about Professors and about Teacher Education (see Evidence 9 above). Forster's papers provide an interesting commentary on the social, political and cultural aspects of the educational scene in Hong Kong in the inter-war period.
[Autobiographical]... After a month or so [in 1914, immediately after his first arrival as a Government Education Officer in Hong Kong] I came to the conclusion that the atmosphere of Queen's College was not on the whole very satisfactory. Two or three members of the staff seemed to yearn for the recess when they could satisfy their craving for the content of a whisky bottle, which in Hong Kong was exceedingly cheap to buy. As it is now fifty years since I encountered this, the names mean nothing �X they were James, a Welshman, Birbeck, an Englishman, and first assistant Master, a Scotsman called Grant...
['Echoes of Hongkong and Beyond: the Giving of Presents']... It is an an idee fixe with the Chinese that every favour granted has its price, how-ever much Englishmen may strive to correct that mistaken belief. They share with Walpole the view that every man can be bought but just what that price is, it is difficult to determine in every case ...
. . . Another incident of this kind once took place in a Government secondary school. A youth who had been a prefect and was about to leave after sitting for his school certificate examination went to the Headmas-ter's office to pay his respects before departing. In doing so he expressed the hope that he had been successful in his recent examination, and accompanied his remarks with the movement of his hand across the desk presenting a five dollar bill to the Headmaster. Immediately the peaceful atmosphere of the office changed; consternation and indignation reigned. The erring youth was hurried out into the Hall whither the whole school was summoned and there he was publicly unfrocked as it were. His name was left on the prefect's board but a black line was out through it �X the bar sinister branded him as an example and warning for other boys. The offence was, of course, doubly unpardonable for the youth first mistak-enly assumed that the Headmaster could be bribed, and second put his price at a ridiculously low figure. The friends of the prefect and the enemies of the Headmaster (and being a martinet he had many) said that the second offence was infinitely greater than the first.
[Reflections on the cause of the 1925 General Strike] .. . Not less but
more education, an education that touches not the select few, but the general populace, is what is needed ...
. .. The present noisy element consists of those who have been edu-cated but whose abilities are not engaged in productive occupations, because the economic and political progress of the country has not kept pace with the growth of western knowledge ...
... the Chinese in Hongkong are not governed by the British, they are governed by, and are loyal to Canton. In the course of eleven years residence in the Colony I have yet to meet a pure Chinese who said he was a British subject...
The fact is that Hongkong is merely a pied-de-terre both for British and Chinese residents. The former looks forward to his next leave and final retirement in England, the latter regards himself, like the former, as a temporary exile from his beloved home in Hongkong... The prosperity of the Colony is therefore due entirely to its natural advantages, a capacious land locked harbour capable of accommodating the largest ocean liners, and an unrivalled situation at the mouth of one of the most fertile and therefore most thickly populated river valleys in the world. The contact between the two races is for mutual gain �X material gain. There is contact but no fusion, no community of thought or feeling ...
... The question is can the British Colony ever hope to counteract this [Soviet] influence [on China] by being something more than a commercial community, can it ever become a centre for the diffusion of British ideals and British culture, a place where an intellectual entente can be estab-lished. The attempt has been made. Schools, very efficient ones, have been established, a university has been founded, but in spite of that, there has been no conspicuous adhesion to the British point of view ...
[On a visit to Ping Shan in the nineteen thirties] . . . Our own visit would not have occurred had this been true [that the village was totally unaffected by changes and modern life], for the purpose of the journey was an inspection of a village school of which the elders were very proud and which had been sponsored by the YMCA in Hongkong. So seldom, however, is there any irruption upon the peaceful village life by a Euro-pean that they turned the occasion into a high festival. There were posters announcing our visit, the boys were in a sort of grey uniform and some of the girls would certainly have liked to be enrolled under the Girl Guide Banner. A small brass band, which made much noise if not much music, warned the village that something unusual was afoot...
. . . The school was held in the ancestral hall where the numerous tablets of several generations were suspended from the wall. In and around this temple were several rooms in which classes could be suitably accom-modated. There was space and air and cleanliness and order and an atmosphere of work.
The three R's were stressed, but in addition to that there were some
excellent drawings on the walls done by the pupils, whose control of the
paint brush is assisted by practice in painting 'characters' with the Chi-
nese pen or brush. Writing and drawing are very closely related in China,
and no exhibition of Chinese art is complete which does not contain
numerous examples of calligraphy ... The deftness of the Chinese fingers
which many attribute to the delicacy acquired through the manipulation
of the pen or brush39 in making 'characters', showed itself in neat ex-
amples of handwork, which were exhibited. There were baskets, woven
from the bamboo strips grown near at hand, and there were toys made
from wood, as well as various models made in clay. Another subject
which was taught with considerable emphasis was hygiene. The pictures
illustrating these lessons were clear and expressive, and certainly could
leave no doubt in the pupil's mind about the danger of food being infected
for example by flies ...
That this curriculum does not satisfy some parents who still yearn for the old classics, with their ethical teaching and who remain loyal to Confucius and Mencius, is proved by the fact that some ten children are sent daily to another village, where such teaching is still available in a private school.
Only one third of the children of the village attend School partly because of the economic stress but also because of the difficulty of securing suitable teachers. That the village is not altogether poor is proved by the fact that the annual feasts, such as Ching Ming, are marked by generous distributions of pork the cost of which amounts to a thousand dollars or more.
A teacher is paid 30 to 45 dollars [16$ = �G1] per month but apart from poor salary, it is difficult, owing to distance from town, to induce suitable persons to go. A great deal is being done for physical health in the New Territory by Voluntary Associations, such as the St. John's Ambulance, and for agriculture, by the New Territory Agricultural Association, but the success of these societies depends upon the developed intelligence of the farmers and their families. The YMCA have started this experiment, and have also introduced the Mass Education movement as sponsored by James Yen40 �X himself educated at St. Stephen's College and at Hongkong
139. Other observers, noting the Chinese appreciation of the pleasures of the table, would attribute the deftness of Chinese fingers to early familiarity with chop-sticks!
40. As Forster mentions, James Yen, the pioneer of mass education in China, was educated at St. Stephen's College and was an undergraduate at the University of Hong Kong. He won the King Edward VII Scholarship in 1913, but refused to continue his studies in Britain and, instead, after a short time in Europe, took up an undergraduate course at Yale University. On his graduation from Yale in 1918, he agreed to embark on social work among the China Labour battalions behind the lines in France, where his experience writing letters home to China for illiterate 'coolies' contributed towards his ideas of helping organize mass educa-tion in his homeland. At the end of the war, he returned to the United States to study for a
University, but of course there is vast scope for further voluntary effort, and there are many Chinese students who might now both in Hongkong and in the New Territory, do their share towards removing that state of ignorance, which is so serious an obstacle to any agricultural, industrial or social improvement.
23. Extracts from the Diary of T.J. Houston, Colonial Administration, Hong Kong, in Rhodes House Library, Oxford University, Mss. Ind. Ocn. s.141.
T.J. Houston was, in many ways, typical of the Government 'Cadets' in this period. He was born in Belfast in 1913 and educated at Queen's University, Belfast, and Christ College, Cambridge. He joined the Colonial Service in 1936 when he was posted to Hong Kong. He spent the obligatory two years in Canton learning the language and served in a number of middle-ranking administrative offices. At the surrender of Hong Kong he was serving as a gunner in the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Force, was captured and died in captivity on 24 December 1942. His diary contains much sharp observation and some (to say the least) conservative commentary.
Friday, 20th August, 1937: . . . Chinese clubs are series of private rooms luxuriously furnished. It's rather queer to Western eyes as the Chinese bring their mistresses and also there is an opium room which I saw but with the exception of the Governor every Cadet occasionally goes there. One finds out what the Chinese mind thinks of various legislative propos-als and generally acts on them...
Thursday, 26th August (Canton): .. . Met most of my tutors41 in the after-noon. They decide who takes me and rate is fixed by H.E. They get $HK15 for an hour a day a month and they generally do 6 hours a day and are affluent on 90 HK$ a month. The Hong Kong Government gives them a pension if they reach 60 which is rare as most of them smoke opium ...
24. Extracts from transcript of a tape-recorded interview with Dr K.S. Lo, 2 March 1982.
A second example of evidence gained via the 'oral history' approach, the extract below
Masters degree in History at Princeton. He returned to China in 1920 and, as Secretary for Public Education of the National Committee of the YMCA launched his campaign for mass education in the early 'twenties. See Howard L. Boorman (ed.), Biographical Dictionary of Republican China, Vol. IV (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971), pp. 52-54.
41. These were language tutors. At this time, on first arrival Government Cadets spent at least one year in Canton learning Chinese.
465
offers insights into facts and opinions about life in the University in the 'thirties and about reactions to the Japanese invasion.
.. . I entered the University [of Hong Kong] in 1930 and graduated in 1934 ... I took what was called in those days Commerce. There was a Law and Commerce Department. So we were given a few subjects on Commer-cial Law, a little bit of Accounting, a bit of Economics�Xjust a very general type of degree.
. . . From my own personal view, actually I didn't think I got very much out of my four years of [university] education, other than perhaps a liberal education. Certainly it helped to open my mind, improve my English (because we had to go through three years of English), and, also, there's the fact that, now you have earned a degree, there is far more honour, whether it's real or false. It gives you a certain confidence in yourself, and thaf s very important.
In those days we only had about 400 students in the entire University. And most came from the upper crust of the society. I would say that 90% of them were children from the wealthy families. There were about ten or twenty students studying there who came from China under some kind of provincial scholarship granted by the provincial government. And then there were quite a few students who came from Malaysia and Indonesia. Those who came from Malaysia or Indonesia also belonged to better off families. There were, if I remember correctly, no such things as bursaries. Scholarships were few and I remember that the better known ones were the Loke Yew Scholarship for the Malaysian students and some of the Provincial Government Scholarships for the students from China.
I was considered to be one of the very few students who came from the less well-to-to families. And my father used always to warn me about that. He said, 'Don't you go and mix with those students from wealthy families, because you just can't afford to go about with them.' And then he used a very good phrase which I still remember today. He said, T>on't talk about going out with them because, when you eat together, if he were to pay for the meat and you were to pay for the soy sauce, you can't afford it.' So that, somehow or other, gave me some kind of feeling of inferiority and, as a result, it stopped me from mixing with all the other students... I stayed at May Hall... But, anyway, I managed to make a few friends and, I'm proud to say, some of the friendships have lasted up until today...
Coming back to the students, let me tell you about some of the local students. In those days, boarding was compulsory, for the first two years at least. So all the local students had to stay in the hostel. And I knew quite a few of them, and one of them in particular. I won't mention his full name . . . Now, he came from a very wealthy family. Every weekend, you're allowed to go to your home. So, on Friday afternoon, his family would send a large car to pick him up, together with a chauffeur and an amah. The amah would go up to the room and pack all his dirty clothing and so
on, the laundry, and take it back with her. On Sunday night, when he comes back to the hostel, you have the same amah following him, carrying all his things back to his room, packing them away nicely. And during weekdays, among the Cantonese �X they believe that it is very important that you should have some very good soup to go along with your meal, and that, in one way or another, it would serve as a tonic or lubricate your system, or something �X so, two or three evenings a week, you have this family amah bringing soup prepared at home, pouring it out for this boy. You know we were sitting in the Dining Hall, so it was very conspicuous, because you find the amah with the long [pig] tail standing behind this boy, waiting until he had finished his special soup so that she could collect the dishes and take them back. He never shared the soup!...
In those days, the academic year ended with the calendar year. So I sat for the examination and then the term ended in December, before Christ-mas. And I started to work for Mr. Eu Tong-sen on 1st January...
After I came out to work, I sent for my two brothers [from Malaysia]. So they came and studied in King's College ... They complained that the English teachers there were always very haughty . . . They didn't like students who asked too many questions. People always say that Chinese students don't ask questions, but, in many ways, they were being discour-aged by those teachers...
... There was quite a lot of looting at the time of the Japanese invasion. Even right after the Japanese came in. And this is a very interesting social point. Before the War, there was a great difference between master and servant. A servant was never supposed to talk back to the master. A lot of these people who had been the underdogs took the opportunity of the change of society. They thought, 'You're no longer the master, because money doesn't mean anything now ...' So some old scores were settled. Revenge was taken. These groups of people �X and even in those days there were some triad societies �X took great advantage of the situation. In the chaos, they went round from door to door, shouting 'Sing Lei! Sing Lei!' (Victory, Victory!!). Of course, the Japanese, when they shouted 'Victory!' meant their military victory. But to the poorer Chinese, 'Victory' meant Today, I am over you at last. I have my victory over you.' So they would come and loot whatever they wanted. It went on for quite some time here .. /
25. Bernard H.K. Luk, 'Lu Tsu-Chiin and Ch'en Jung-Kun: Two Exemplary Figures in the 'Ssu-shu' Education of Pre-War Urban Hong Kong', in David Faure, James Hayes and Alan Birch (eds.), From Village to City: Studies in the Traditional Roots of Hong Kong Society (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1984), p. 120.
467
This brief extract from Bernard Luk's article may help to place the role of the more traditional school within Hong Kong's educational provision in better perspective.
On the ssu-shu in urban Hong Kong, Yuan Jou, an acute observer from Lingnan University, wrote in 1940 that these old-style private schools had always existed in large numbers, that they were small in size and privately owned, and could be found almost anywhere, especially in the Central and Western districts of Hong Kong Island. He estimated that Hong Kong probably ranked first among large Chinese cities in having so many ssu-shu.
Whether or not Hong Kong could claim this dubious honour, Yuan reported that in 1939, among the subsidized and 675 non-aided vernacular primary schools, many were in fact ssu-shu. This suggests that in the 1920s and 30's, there were in urban Hong Kong hundreds of ssu-shu with tens of thousands of pupils accounting for a sizeable share of the school popula-tion of the time. The ssu-shu was a significant quantitative as well as qualitative feature of Hong Kong education.
There existed in pre-war Hong Kong as yet no integrated and autoch-thonous school system. Although an eight-year Anglo-Chinese secondary school gradually came into being after the establishment of Hong Kong University in 1911 and the adoption of the first Education Ordinance in 1913, the majority of the schools followed a 6-3-3 (six years-three years-three years) Chinese pattern of the time. Some of these schools were in fact registered in Canton as well as in Hong Kong. And pupils who completed their senior secondary course often sought higher education in China. Many schools, too, operated on neither the eight-year, nor the 6-3-3 plan.
In this hodge-podge of a system, the ssu-shu enjoyed enviable flexibil-ity. Being constrained by no fixed curriculum it could adapt itself to meet the needs of all kinds of pupils �X those aspiring for the eight year Anglo-Chinese school and those aiming at the Chinese middle school, as well as those who wanted only a few years of basic schooling.
The content of a ssu-shu education was often no more than the traditional basic literacy and rote memory of the Confucian Classics. Yuan observed that the curriculum of the ssu-shu consisted only of such works as the Four Books, the Five Classics, the Annotated Collection of Model Essays (ku-wen p'ing-chu), and the like. The standards were rather low, and the contents not at all progressive. Conservative parents sent their sons to these establishments in the expectation that they would learn in a few years how to read and write, how to keep simple accounts, and to acquire some of the Sages' teachings; before they were ready to learn a trade in the shops.
Thus, a ssu-shu course could be completed with great economy of time and money. A modern six-year primary school could not offer such an advantage.
26. The development of schools run by Chinese voluntary associations.
Below are descriptions of the educational initiatives taken by one very large and prominent voluntary association and one relatively small one.42 Readers may wish to 'read between the lines' messages about the role of the voluntary associations vis-a-vis the Hong Kong Government.
(a) Development of the Tung Wah Hospitals (1870-1960) compiled by the board of directors (1960-1961 XHong Kong: Tung Wah Hospitals, 1961) (translated from the Chinese).
Educational Expenditure of the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals was financed by Temples.
With the planning and encouragement of the Directors of the Tung Wah Hospital, improvements were made in the organization of the school system. As a result, the Tung Wah Free Schools became highly regarded in Hong Kong society.
In the tenth Ordinance of 1908, the Hong Kong Government announced that the Man Mo Temple was to be managed by the Tung Wah Hospital and specified that 'the capital of the Man Mo Temple should be used to support free schools in Hong Kong so that the Chinese would benefit by receiving education.' In other words, Tung Wah Free Schools were financed by temples, including the Man Mo, Tin Hau, Hung Sing and Kwong Fuk temples. At that time, there were fourteen Free Schools financed by the Man Mo Temple. On the other hand, the Tin Hau and Kwong Fuk temples were responsible for the expenditure of two Free Schools each. There were altogether sixteen Free Schools located in the Central District, Sai Ying Pun, Wanchai, and Yau Ma Tei, with a pupil population of 2,000. The schools were named after the sponsoring temple, for example, the Man Mo Free School, the Kwong Fuk Temple Free School, etc.
In 1910, when Lau Chu Pak was the chairman of the TWGH Board, eight bright pupils of Class A were selected to further their studies in Nam Wah College. Such a practice helped to motivate the pupils to study hard and provided poor pupils with a chance for more advanced education. In 1912, when the Republic of China was established, many schools still followed traditional methods. Subsequently, one after the other, schools began adopting new textbooks for teaching. But it was only in 1924, after
42. A record of another example of a small voluntary association, organized around the district of origin is included as Evidence 26 of Chapter 1. Lethbridge mentions a further type. The Chung Sing Charitable Society, originally known as the Chung Sing Opera Society, was founded around 1917 by the prominent merchant, Tsang Foo, and amongst its charitable enterprises, maintained a free school (H.J. Lethbridge, Hong Kong: Stability and Change (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 126).
the disruption caused by the Seamen's Strike, that all schools adopted the new system of class allocation.
In 1928, under the leadership of Chairman Tang Siu Kin, various im-provements to the school system commenced. Introduced by Fung Ping Shan, Chan Chiu Mei became responsible for evaluating the whole sys-tem. By the end of the year, when Chan Chiu Mei resigned from his post, Mr. Wong was employed as inspector of schools in charge of managing the Free Schools. Following the retirement of Luk Cheuk Man, the school ran by him and other merchants in Wong Nai Chung was taken over and managed by the Hong Kong Government. With the permission of the Secretary for Chinese Affairs, the school was granted to the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals and financed by the Man Mo Temple. In September, the school was named the Man Mo Temple No. 15 Free School. School fees which had been received for the months after September were returned. However, the school was so small that only 60 pupils were admitted. In order to accommodated more poor children, the Government agreed to allocate crown land and to subsidize the building of a new school in King Kwong Street. From 1929 onwards, the Government annually subvented the school with $800. This was the first Tung Wah Primary School to receive government subsidy. The Government also contributed the rent of a flat at 10, Kwai Fong Street.
The fact that there were many poor children living in such a densely populated district as Shaukeiwan alerted the attention of the Tung Wah Group. With the assistance of the Hospital Consultant, Lee Yau Chuen, helped by the Government allocation of crown land in Tung Tai Street and by the Man Mo Temple funding the $4,000 construction fee, the Man Mo Temple No. 16 Free School was eventually opened on 13th November.
In 1929, the Chairman, Lo Man Kam, recognizing the limitations of having only one class in each Free School, was eager to expand the schools to include more levels. In order to implement his scheme, the third floors of 246,250 and 252, Des Voeux Road West were taken to combine with the original school premises at the third floor, 248, Des Voeux Road. The school was renamed the Man Mo Temple Western District Free Elemen-tary Primary School.
Later it was suggested that the public office of the Man Mo Temple be converted into school premises. After much discussion, the idea was put into effect by Lee Yau Chuen and Fung Ping Shan, with the earnest support of all the members of the Board. Consequently, a three-storeyed cement building was constructed at 130, Hollywood Road at a construc-tion fee of $13,200. Similarly, the six Free Schools in the Central District and Sheung Wan were combined together to form the Man Mo Temple Central District Free Elementary Primary School. On 8th December, an opening ceremony was presided over by Sir Shouson Chow, Chinese representative on the Legislative Council.
In the same year, the Government allocated the newly-built Mong Yeung School in Wong Nai Chung to the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals. It consisted of three bright classrooms and was large enough to admit 120 pupils. The school was named the Man Mo Temple Wong Nai Chung District Free Elementary Primary School.
During Lo Man Kam's Chairmanship, Dr. Wong Shek To was en-gaged to check the pupils' eyesight. When it was discovered that many pupils suffered from poor eye-sight, the Chairman instructed that a fund be established by the Man Mo Temple for spectacles for pupils of the Tung Wah Free Schools. This was one of the most important provisions related to pupil health care.
In 1930, the Chairman, Leung But Yu, Director Kwok Chan, and others planned a series of school development schemes. The idea, as before, was to combine Free Schools in certain districts in order to facilitated learning and teaching. Financed by the Man Mo Temple by some $60,000, a new four-storey school premises was built in Wanchai at 194,196,198 and 200, Lockhart Road. Also, the three Free Schools offering Arts 5, Arts 11, Arts 13, and the Hung Sing Temple No. 1 School were combined to form the Man Mo Temple Eastern District Free Elementary Primary School. On 17th January, Sir Shouson Chow presided over the opening ceremony.
Managing a primary school for girls and changing the school system.
In 1931, the Chairman, Ngan Sing Kun, acknowledged that, in the past few dedades, efforts had been made only to expand the provision of free schools for boys. No attempts had been made to provide free education for girls. He took the initiative, therefore, to set up Free Schools for girls. Financed by the Kwong Fuk Temple, a girls' Free School, named Kwong Fuk Temple Girls' Free Elementary Primary School was established at 285-287, Queen's Road West, 4th Hoor, admitting 65 girls. In addition, the Kwong Fuk Temple also contributed $1,500 as the school fund. Financed by the Directors, another Free School for girls was set up at 201, Hennessy Road, 4th Floor, admitting 50 girls. Since the school was supported by the Directors, it was named the Tung Wah Hospital Directors Free SciiQol for Girls.
At this stage, free education provided by the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals was on track. Until 1939, thanks to the strenuous efforts of the Directors, the Free Schools were developed at a constant pace.
Many Chinese fled to Hong Kong after the Japanese invasion of China. At this time, the population increased from 200,000 to 800,000. Both the medical services and the free education provided by the Tung Wah were in great demand.
In 1940, while Lee Yan Chuen was Chairman, the Hong Kong Govern-ment, for reasons of hygiene, passed a new Education Ordinance, limiting the number of pupils in each school. Under these circumstances, the
471
Directors, with a view to expanding free education for the poor, intro-duced the bi-sessional system to all their schools. In this period, as many as 1,928 pupils were admitted. [Before the new Ordinance was passed, there were 1,184 pupils; when the restriction on numbers was imposed, only 964 pupils were admitted.] This was the first time for the Free Schools in Hong Kong to introduce the bi-sessional system.
To expand free education to workers and those who wanted to spe-cialize in a particular trade, the Directors suggested opening evening schools. Therefore, six evening schools specializing in different subjects were opened. They included industry, commerce, domestic science, ele-mentary Chinese, and elementary English (two schools offered this sub-ject). Altogether, 220 pupils were admitted in the Evening Free Schools. In this period, there were 12 Free Schools, 8 for boys, 4 for girls, located in the Central District, Sai Ying Pun, Wanchai, Wong Nai Chung, Shau Kei Wan, and Yau Ma Tei. This was the general picture of the Free Schools run by the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals up to the outbreak of the war.
(b) An Introduction to All the Schools run by the Lok Sin Tong (translated from the Chinese).
Lok Sing Tong Primary School
School Address: 63 Lung Kong Road, Kowloon City
Development: The original name of the school was Kowloon Lok Sin Tong Free School. The present name was adopted only in 1978. Being aware of the poor conditions of the neighbourhood and of the fact that a large number of children missed the opportunity to be educated, in 1929, the Directors of our organization decided to establish a Free School for girls near Dai Tit Street, opposite a Japanese Hall. The following year, the school expanded to admit boys also, so that more children could receive education. Up to 1937, thanks to the strenuous efforts of the Directors, Wong Bun Fu, Lee Sung Sing, and Chan Cho Chak, the school organiza-tion developed quickly, with a student population of over 300. At that time, the principals of the school were Wong Mon Fun and Hui Hei Yan. On 8th December, 1941, the Japanese invasion of Hong Kong began. Hong Kong was then occupied by the Japanese for three years and eight months. During that time, the school had to be suspended ...
27. Family history.
The second, later snapshot (Illus. 5.7) from a family album43 shows the same profes-
43. The first snapshot appears as Illus. 1.5 on p. 83.
EDUCATION IN HONG KONG - PRE-1841 TO 1941
Illus. 5.7 The Headmaster, his assistant and pupils of an unregistered school in the 1930s.
sionally qualified graduate teacher running the same unregistered school at Hill Street, Hong Kong, with a different, slightly larger group of pupils and an assistant teacher.
Obviously, the school was a going concern, but the head teacher restricted its growth for several reasons, including the amount of usable space in the rented premises and his determination to be selective about his intake, which was focused largely upon commercial families.
28. Enrolments at 'English' and 'Vernacular7 Schools, 1914-1938. (Illus. 5.8)
The main problem about the statistics used to produce the following graph arises from the tendency of Government compilers of educational statistics to switch between 'total enrolments' and 'average attendance' (normally an appreciably lower figure). In this period, the figures for the Government and Grant schools tend to refer to average atten-dance and the figures for the private schools to total enrolment. With these reservations, it is possible to use the graph to detect and query fundamental trends.
Enrolments/Average Attendance, 1914-1938
100000 -90000 -
/
80000 -
/ 1
^�X-^ /
70000 -
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ / English Schools
60000 -/ '
Av. attendance/ Vernacular Schools
50000-
Total Enrolment
/ \ / '
k
Total Enrolmcnts/Av.
X \ / /"*
40000 -
/ ^ / Attendance
30000 -20000 -5 '�X /
^^.~s .�E �E
.�E�E .�E�E�E�E�E �E �E�E
10000 -
�X �X*~ �E�E ' �E*
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 H
1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Year
4^
Illus. 5.8 Enrolments at 'English' and 'Vernacular' Schools, 1914-1938.
EDUCATION IN HONG KONG - PRE-1841 TO 1941
29. Photographic evidence.
The first photograph shows the Central District and Mid-Levels of Hong Kong Island in about 1922 (Illus. 5.9a). The sites and buildings of Queen's College (Aberdeen Street) and Belilios Public School (Gough Street) are quite conspicuous.
The second photograph shows an atypical schoolroom of the period (Illus 5.9b). It is taken from a family album and depicts the daughters of Sir Henry May, Governor of Hong Kong, 1912-19, in the schoolroom of 'Mountain Lodge' at the Peak, in about 1915.
The third photograph is also from a family album and shows Diane May selling tulips at the Ministering Children's League Bazaar in the grounds of Government House on 11 November 1916 (Illus 5.9c). Obviously, the Governor's children were prepared to 'do their bit' during the First World War for a deserving charity on behalf of the much more disad-vantaged young in Hong Kong.
The fourth photograph shows Sir Henry May opening the new building of the French Convent School (also known as St. Paul's Convent School) at Causeway Bay, Hong Kong, on 6 October 1916 (Illus. 53d).
The fifth photograph is of the entrance to a leading Anglican Grant School for Girls (Illus. 5.9e). It was taken in 1923.
Illus. 5.9a The Central District and Mid-Levels of Hong Kong Island in about 1922.
Illus. 5.9b The daughters of Sir Henry May, Governor of Hong Kong, 1912-1919, in the schoolroom of 'Mountain Lodge' at the Peak, in about 1915.
Illus. 5.9c Diane May selling tulips at the Ministering Children's League Bazaar in the grounds of Government House on 11 November 1916.
J
1 �E'"'
Illus. 5.9d Sir Henry May opening the new building of the French Convent School at Causeway Bay, Hong Kong, on 6 October 1916.
Illus. 5.9e The entrance to a leading Anglican Grant School for Girls in 1923.
30. The shaping of a 'System'.44
A simple input/output diagram may help to summarize the principal developments in Hong Kong education in the inter-war period, at least from a macro-level (Illus. 5.10).
THE GREAT DEPRESSION
MAY FOURTH MOVEMENT, GROWING CHINESE NATIONALISM INFLUX OF POPULATION
NQN-PROFESSIONAL ADMINISTRATION BURNEY REPORT
THE
EDUCATIONAL
"SYSTEM"
LITTLE CURRICULUM RECOGNITION OF THE
CHANGE NEED FOR PLANNING
VERNACULARIZATION
WIDESPREAD CRITICISMS OF EDUCATION IN HONG KONG
POLITICIZATION INCREASED ATTENTION TO OF SCHOOLING TECHNICAL AND PRACTICAL EDUCATION
Illus. 5.10 The shaping of a 'System'.
44. Like all diagrams, Evidence 30, in its attempts to condense and emphasize key factors, leaves itself open to the criticism that it over-simplifies. Readers may wish to consider (a) to what extent Hong Kong's 'system' of education resembled a closed box by 1941, (b) whether the 'red tape' contributed constructively to the whole package, (c) what were the other major inputs to and outputs of the 'system' in the period 1914-39, and (d) how the situation immediately before the Japanese occupation in 1941 is related to educational developments in the earlier periods.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. PRIMARY SOURCES
There seems little point in merely repeating the detailed bibliographical refer-ences included in the Evidence sections of the various chapters, but the principal archival collections consulted were:
Annual Reports of the Director of Education, 1914-39.
The Beginning Learner's Textbook (in Chinese), edition approved by the Ministry of Education, China, distributed by Chan Sheung Kee, Hong Kong, n.d., but pre-Re-public.
Board of Education (Great Britain), Educational Systems of the Chief Crown and Possessions of the British Empire, including Reports on the Training of Native Races
(Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Vol. 14) (London: H.M.S.O., 1905).
The China Review. Chinese Repository, 1832-51. China Mail, 1853-1941 (incomplete). Colonial Office Records, Series 129 and 131. The Cree Journals (Greenwich, London: National Maritime Museum). Creech Jones Papers, Mss. Brit. Emp. s. 332, Rhodes House, Oxford University. Diocesan Records, in the Public Records Office, Hong Kong, HKMS Nos. 85 & 88. Education Journal (Hong Kong University EducationSociety), 1926-41 & 1954-69. Evans, Prof. D.M.E., 'Annotated Collection of Prints by Thomas Allom', his
'Biographical Index' and his 'Key to Early Hong Kong Land Lots' (mimeos). Foreign Office Records, Series 17,682,881. Forster Papers, Mss. Ind. Ocn. s. 177, Rhodes House, Oxford University. The Friend of China and Hongkong Gazette, 1842-59.
Historical and Statistical Abstract of the Colony of Hong Kong, 1841-1930,3rd edition (1932). Hong Kong Blue Books, 1845-1940. Hong Kong Daily Press, 1870-1941 (incomplete).
Hong Kong Government Administrative Reports, 1879-1940. Hong Kong Government Colonial Estimates, 1860-1940. Hong Kong Hansard, 1890-1940. Hong Kong Government Gazette, 1854-1941. Hong Kong Sessional Papers, 1884-1940.
Houston, T.H., Diary, Mss. Ind. Ocn. s. 141, Rhodes House, Oxford University. Photographic Collection, in the Public Records Office, Hong Kong. Report of the Commission on the Industrial Employment of Children, 1921. Report of the Education Commission, 1882. Report of the Education Committee, 1902. Report of the Hong Kong University (1937) Committee. South China Morning Post, 1907-41. St. Paul's Magazine, the School Magazine of St. Paul's Convent School. Steps, the School Magazine of the Diocesan Boys School. Tape-recorded interviews. The Thousand Character Classic (in Chinese), edition approved by the Ministry of
Education, China, distributed by Chan Sheung Kee, Hong Kong, n.d., but pre-
Republic. The Three Character Classic (in Chinese), edition approved by the Ministry of Edu-cation, China, distributed by Chan Sheung Kee, Hong Kong, n.d., but pre-Repub-lic.
Triennial Survey of the Education Department, 1958-61.
Yellow Dragon, the School Magazine of Queen's College.
B. SECONDARY SOURCES
Full bibliographical references appear in the text, especially the Evidence sections and the footnotes. The main secondary sources consulted in the prepara-tion of this work were:
Addis, C.S., 'Education in China', in The China Review XVIII (1889-90), 205-12.
Agassi, J. & Jarvie, I.C., Hong Kong: A Society in Transition (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969).
Altbach, Philip G. & Kelly, Gail P. (eds.), Education and the Colonial Experience, 2nd edn. (New Brunswick, U.S.A.: Transaction Books, 1984).
Anon., The Central School: Can It Justify Its Raison d'etre? (Hong Kong: Noronha, 1877).
Anon., Dates and Events (1857-1877) connected with the History of Education in Hong Kong (Hong Kong: printed at the St. Lewis Reformatory, 1877).
Asile de la Sainte Enfance, French Convent, directed by the Sisters of St. Paul ofChartres, at Hong Kong, Monography (Chartres, 1910).
Baker, Hugh D.R., A Chinese Lineage Village: Sheung Shut (London: Frank Cass,
1968).
Baker, Hugh D.R., The Five Great Clans', based on a lecture delivered on 1st
March, 1965, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 6
(1966), pp. 25-47.
Balfour, S.F., 'Hong Kong before the British', reprinted from Tien Hsia Monthly
(Shanghai) 11-12 (1940-41), in the Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal
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Ball, J. Dyer, Things Chinese; or, Notes connected with China, 5th edn., revised by E.
Chalmers Werner (Shanghai, Hongkong and Singapore: Kelly & Walsh, 1925,
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Hong Kong, 1982).
Ball, Stephen, 'Imperialism, Social Control and the Colonial Curriculum in Africa',
in Ivor F. Goodson & Stephen J. Ball (eds.), Defining the Curriculum: Histories and Ethnographies (London: Falmer Press, 1984).
Bard, Solomon, In Search of the Past: A Guide to the Antiquities of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Urban Council, 1988).
Barnett, K.M.A., 'Hong Kong before the Chinese: The Frame, The Puzzle and The Missing Pieces' (lecture delivered on 18 November 1963), in Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 4 (1964), 42^67.
Bateson Wright, G.H., 'Education', in Arnold Wright (ed.), Twentieth Century Im-pressions of Hong Kong, Shanghai and Other Treaty Ports of China (London: Lloyd's Great Britain Publishing Co., 1908).
Board of Directors (1960-61), Development of the Tung Wah Hospitals (1870-1960) (Hong Kong, Tung Wah Hospitals, 1961) (in Chinese).
Board of Education (Great Britain), Educational Systems of the Chief Crown Colonies and Possessions of the British Empire including Reports on the Training of Native Races
(London: H.M.S.O., 1905).
Boorman, Howard L. (ed.), Biographical Dictionary of Republican China (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971).
Borthwick, Sally, Education and Social Change in China: The Beginnings of the Modern Era (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1983).
Briggs, Asa, The Age of Improvement (London: Longman, 1959)
Bullivant, Brian, Race, Ethnicity and Curriculum (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1981).
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INDEX
Aberdeen Trade School, 348,355 Ad hoc Committee of 1847,145 Addis, C.S., 39 Adult education, 202,206 Advice as regards Instruction, 190 Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, 344,352,355,408 Agencies, multiplicity of, 71-72 American missionaries, 144 Anglo-Chinese schools, 345, 352, 355-56,359,407 Annual grant, 144,146, Anonymous pamphlets, 1877,33,34-35, 359,407 Art, 359 Arts and crafts, 356 Asile de la Sainte Enfance, 7, 17-18, 145,309-18,325,326 Attendance, 72-78, 192, 217, 221, 222, 251,254,263,270,349,398,473 Attitudes, about language, 31,223-24,225-26 Headmasters', 38-39,319-38 nationalistic, 341^13,347 of British in Hong Kong, 372,461 of Chinese community, 205, 236-37, 272 of early Chinese population of Hong Kong, 139,141,142,168,182,224 of European community, 156-57, 179,205 of European teachers, 466 of missionaries, 128-32, 139, 141, 176^-78 of parents, 140, 217, 227, 228, 232, 233,235 of pupils, 226-27 pragmatic, 68-69,196,205,217, 224, 225 towards Hong Kong, 33
Barlow, R.C., 282 Basel Mission, 215 Bateson Wright, George, 49, 213, 217, 218,219,280,319,332-33 Baxter, Miss Sophia Harriet, 150, 152, 153,189 Belilios Public School, 200,214,296,349, 354,402 Belilios Scholarships, 212 Belilios, E.R., 208 Bi-sessional system, 471 Bible reading, at the Central School, 222 Board of Chinese Vernacular Primary Education, 220,345,354 Board of Education, 149,150,151,153, 180,185-^87,195,203,222,224,347, 348,349,354,404 Board of Education, China, 453 Board of Examiners in Chinese for Government officers, 209 Boarders, 411-32 Bong-ban, 47,140 Books, 22,26,224,265-69 Bosman, Walter, 328 Botanical garden, 152 Bowley, F.B.L., 283 Bowring, Sir John, 141,184 Boy Scout movement, 61,219,220 Brewin, A.W., 215,275,324,325 British Government, 276,398 Brown, the Rev. S.R., 9,20,143,161-63, 165-^67 Brunyate, Sir William, 396 Bureaucratization, 202-203 Burney Report, 344, 355-57, 360, 403-408 Burney, E., 344,355,357,358,407
Cadet officers, 404,464 Cadet scheme, 177 Caine, Col. William, 8,146
Cambridge Local Examinations, 212 Canossian Sisters and their schools, 150, 229, 244,358 Cartoons, 84,85,138,338,339 Censorship of local English language press, 397-98 Central School, 33-34,35,36,37,44,45, 142, 150, 151, 152, 198, 203, 206, 207,208,210,211,212,213,221-22, 224-27,232,233,234,235,238-40, 243, 245-46, 248 Scholarships, 209 Centre-periphery problems, 3 Ch'en Jung-kun, 347,466 Chamberlain, Joseph, 216,217,276 Chan Chiu Mei, 469 Cheng, F.T., 39 Cheng, T.C., 6,338,453 Child Labour, 348,349,372-95,396 suggested prohibition of 254-55,263 Chinese language, 2,3, lln, 16, 19, 20, 21-22,26, 2S-29,31,32, 38,41^7, 49, 66, 69, 94-95, 96-99, 129, 130, 131, 132-33, 138, 141n, 145, 147, 149, 151,152, 155, 162, 164, 168, 173, 175, 177, 180, 182, 183, 184, 206,208,216,220,221-22,224,226, 227, 233, 234, 237n, 239, 265, 268-69,276,278,282,289,290-93, 298n, 300-308, 320, 326, 332, 341, 344, 345, 347, 348, 351, 352, 354, 355-57, 359, 364-65, 370, 371-72, 399, 400-401, 402, 405-406, 407, 409, 410-11, 436, 444, 451-52, 454-60,463,464,467,468,471,477 Children's School, 144,146 China Mail, 180,218,230,273,278^80 Chinese population, nature of, in early Colonial period, 140,181-83 Chinese pupils, attitudes towards, 21-22,34,321-22 Chinese Recreation Club, 220 Chinese Repository, 87, 128-31, 143, 161-67 Chinese School, illustration of, 194
Chinese schoolbooks, Committee on compilation of, 209 Chinese schools, 67,87-92,143,194,195, 209,282^83,289-93,339,405,409, 433-35, 452-53, 454^60, 462-64, 467,468-71 Chou-Wang-Erh-Kung College, 88 Chow, (Sir) Shou-son, 348,394,399,401, 403,469 Chronicle section of book, Overview of periods, 15 Purpose of, 12 Chung Wah Shu Yuen, 371,402, see also Confucian Middle School Church Missionary Society, 176,188 City Hall, 207,354 production of 'H.M.S. Pinafore', 294 City Hall Museum, dispute over open-ing hours, 204,236-37 Class-size, 351,397 Classroom conditions, 32, 36,129,132, 154, 155, 163, 194, 232, 282-83, 405-406 Clementi Middle School, 351, 354, 399, 402 Colonial Development and Welfare Act, 361 Colonialism, 2-3, 5, 14, 33-34, 48, 69, 139,173,177,180,185-87,236-37, 245,269-70,272-75,276^83,298n, 300-301,308,319-38,341-43,361 and alienation, 167, 227 as cultural imperialism, 2, 3, 48, 166-67,221-27 Commentary section of book, purpose of, 12 Commission on the Industrial Employ-ment of Children, 348,349,372-95 Commission for Overseas Chinese Af-fairs, 353,354,453 Committee of Enquiry (1917) into teach-ing of English language, 346 Committee of Supervision, 145, see also Education Committee Communist influences on schools, 353
Compradore, 196-97 Compulsory education, 224,229, 255-56,263,265,341,348,372, 388-89,390,391-92 Concerts, 24,156,165,179 Confucian Middle School, 351,371, 402 Confucian Society, 371 Control, over Kuomintang influences, 352, 40CM01,450 over schools, 27,30,177-78,180, 181,185,186-87,195,202-203, 204-205,220-21,283-89,310, 345,346,351,398-99,400-403 Cree, Edward, 153-54 Cricket, 147,194 Cultural desert, allegation, 153,156, 394 Curriculum, 11,12,16,22,23,26,28, 36-38,39,41,43,50,87,88,90, 92,95,96-99,129,131,133,138, 145,147,149,151,152,166-^67, 168,173,178,180,190,198,205, 206,208,209,2l0,216,221-26, 237,238-40,241-42,246,256, 258,260,265-69,282,283, 299-308,311,313,314,320,334, 344,346,348,352,356-57,358, 404,405-406,407,408,410-11, 451,452,457,459-60,463,467, 477 political ramifications, 38
Davis, Sir John, 7,144n, 145n, 168, 169-72,187 Deng Fuxie, see Tang Fu Hsieh Dent & Co., collapse (1867), 196n, 207 Department of Education, University of Hong Kong, 346 Depression in the 1930s, influence of, 343 Dialects, 182 Diocesan Boys7 School, 47,51,52-65, 189,240,272,325-26,409,410-11
Diocesan Girls' School, 149,189,220 Diocesan Home and Orphanage, 244 Diocesan Native Female Training School, 149,151,152,189-91, 207-208,248 Diocesan Schools, 198 Director of Education, 203,219,281, 341,344,345,346,347,349,355, 357,358,360,366,368,370,371, 390,396,404,408,444 Discipline, 27,34,129,221,321-23, 401,451 District Schools, 203,212,214,216,260 Dixon's Hong Kong Recorder, 179 Documents, destruction of, 5 Dual system, 203,216,219
Early childhood education, 49-51,130, 206,215, 260,264,349,350,434 Eaton, Miss Mary Winefred, 150n, 152, 189,190-91 Economy, 195-96,343,398,400 Education, 'folk-stream' of, 195 concept of, 30-31,205,223,224-25, 226 demand and supply of, 363-66, 396-97 objectives of, 189,190 'system', 338-39,341,477 value of, 223-24 Education Commission (1880-^82), 211, 212,237-40 Education Commission Report (1882), 212,237-40 Education Committee, 26,142,143, 145,146,147,148,149,174, 180-81,184-85,187 Education Committee (1901-1902), 216 Education Committee Report (1902), 203,205,216-17,275-76 Education Conference (1878), 203,210, 234 Education Department, 49,83,152, 153,187,203,206,219,221,251,
255,260,262,338,339,354,347, 350,353,358,360n, 365,366,372, 396,407,408,433,435,453
Education Ordinance (1913), 83, 195, 203,204,205,220-21,283-89,341, 360,366,467 revision of, 360,470
Education Tax, 224,255,256,263
Educational reforms in China, 351-53, 403,458-59 Educational statistics, unreliability of, 72-73, 79,193,293,472 Educational system, 338-39, 341, 435, 477
Educational technology, 92,108,180
Eitel, E.J., 4, 5,6, 8n, 14,15, 39,87, 88n, 139n, 140n, 143n, 146, 149, 150n, 152n, 159, 162n, 168, 173, 176n, 184, 189, 199n, 200n, 203n, 209, 210, 212, 214, 215, 235-36, 247, 249n, 250, 262, 263-65, 269-70, 323-24
Elite, Chinese and Eurasian, 188, 196-97,299,343 development of, 188
English language, 2, 19, 35, 36-37, 38, 39,44,50,51,69-70,147,148,149, 152, 162, 164, 166, 167, 170, 175, 179, 183, 186-87, 189, 190, 191, 197n, 202n, 206,210,211,214,216, 220, 221-22, 224-25, 227, 228, 231-34, 237-40, 241-42, 244, 247-50, 253, 256-57, 261, 265-67, 278,295,300-308,311,314,319-21, 332, 335, 341, 344, 345, 346, 347, 356-57,359,363,355,367-69,406, 408,410-11,451,452,457,460
Enrolment figures, 72-78, 192, 215, 217-18,293,472-73 Entrance Examination, 66,207,220,221, 346,359,452
Errors produced and reinforced by the Government Education Depart-ment, 9-10, 72-73, 79, 193, 293, 472
Ethnic and social tensions, 70, 140-41, 200n,202n, 203,272-75 Eurasian children, education of, 152, 189,207,235,244,248
European population, nature of in early Colonial period, 139,141,182,197 Evening Continuation Classes, 202n,
218,219 Evening Institute, 358 Evening schools, 248,353,471 Evidence sections of book, purpose of,
12-14 Evolution, Darwin's theory of, 203-204, 283 Examination question, samples of, 36-38 Examination successes, 89, 91, 93-94, 110-11
Examination system, 126-27, 128, 147, 151,164,206,207,212,213,292-93, 354,358,359
Extraneous influences, 2,173,196, 205, 343
Face, 68,71,465 Fact and opinion, role of, 1,2,3,14 Family history, 13, 83-84, 105-106,
471-72 Fees, 65,152,187,217 Females,
education of, 43, 128,130,149, 150, 188-89, 200n, 206, 207, 213, 214, 222-23, 227, 234-36, 242, 247-50, 254,326
in Hong Kong society, 234-36 Feminism in China, 348 Footnotes in book, purpose of, 14 Forster Act, 9,209 Forster, Professor Lancelot, 342, 353,
407,461-64 Francis, J.J., 231 Free Schools, 67, 289-93, 353, 371-72,
468-71 for Girls, 353,470-71 French Convent, 7,17,244,409,412, see
also St. Paul's Convent, and Asile de la Sainte Enfance
French Convent School, 244, 309-18, 409,412-32,476
The Friend of China and Hongkong Ga-zette, 23-25,179-80 Fu Jen Literary Society, 201n, 214,271n Fung Ping Shan, 348,402,469 Fung Ping Shan Library, 352
Gazetteer (1819), 88n, 90n, 100-104, 135-37 Government, distrust of, 213n, 270 expenditure on education, 25-26,30, 33, 73, 74-78, 79-S2, 169-72,175, 179,208,345,355 policy, 210,265,274-75,275-78,341, 346,351,355,362-66,369-70,371, 396-97,408 responsibilities for education, 3, 33-34, 47-48, 168-72, 179, 181, 184-85,186,195,203,204-208,232, 234,274,275-76,341,344,345,347, 355-57, 362-66', 369-70, 371-72, 396-97,399,402,435 Government Central School for Girls, 214 Government Girls' School, 222-23 Government officials, 2, 8, 48, 88, 91, 95,141,341,354 Government Primary Vernacular School, 357-58 Government scholarships, 212,216,279, 324,328,358 Government school for Chinese chil-dren in Kowloon, 275 Government school for European chil-dren in Kowloon, 217,275 Government schools, 2, 8, 27, 66, 148, 149, 150, 151, 203, 346, 351, 359, 367,396,397 Government subsidies, 2,144,216,279, 347, 348, 358, 361, 397, 398, 405, 435,467,469
increased for Vernacular schools, 348,358,361 Government Tai Po Vernacular Nor-mal School, 351 Government Trade School, 358 Government Training College, 359 Government Vernacular Middle School, 351,354,399,402 Grant Code, 10, 203,209, 211, 217, 293, 345-46,349,360 Grant School system, largely aban-doned for Chinese schools, 348 Grant schools, 195, 210, 211, 260-61, 265-69,293,349,356,358,360,397, 409,472,474,476 Grant Schools Council, 460 Gutzlaff, Karl (or Charles), 25, 33, 47, 144
Half-yearly examinations, 147 Handwork, 359 Handyside,W.L.,407 Health Code for private schools, 357 Heep Yunn College, 358 Hennessy, Sir John Pope, 210,211,212, 231,232-33,236,237,245,320 Hidden curriculum, 11,90,92 Ho Kai, (Sir) Kai, 7n, 213,216,275 Ho Tung, (Sir) Robert, 215, 216, 274, 275,321,326,348 Ho Tung, Lady Clara, 7n, 353 Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, 200,213,244^7 objectives of founders, 245 Hong Kong Cricket Club, 147,193 Hong Kong Daily Press, 271 Hong Kong Island, 9,15,19,25,27,33, 87, 88, 91, 93, 102, 105, 139, 143, 149,159-61,164-65,178,182,184, 186,292,361,433,467,474 Hong Kong Public School, 208,210 Hong Kong Teachers' Association, 355, 361 Hong Kong Technical College, 358 Hong Kong Tennis League, 219
Hong Kong True Light Primary School, 355
Hong Kong University Education Journal,
353,354,463,450-60 Hong Kong University Education Soci-ety, Free Night School, 353 Houston, T.J., 464 Huang Shih, 93 Hutchins, the Rev. Dr. R.S., 191 Hygiene, 282-83,308,344,354,360,406, 463,470
Illustrations in book, purpose of, 14 Imperial factors in plans for Univer-sity, 278,280 Index of book, possible uses of, 14 India, comparison with, 249-50,253 Industrial school, 348 Industrial workers, education of, 353 Informal (or non-formal) education, 24-25,90,92,108-109,112,114-17, 119,236-37 Inspection, avoidance of, 3, 173n, 195, 222,282 Inspector of Schools, 2, 4, 8, 9, 30, 36, 117, 148, 150, 151, 152, 168, 180, 184, 185, 186, 187, 203, 209, 210, 214, 215, 216, 219, 224, 231, 250, 265, 269, 277, 293, 347, 353, 355, 356,357,358,360,396,398 Inspector of vernacular schools, 353, 356,398 Intelligence tests, 356,359 Interpreters, need for, 69,141-42n, 177, 178,179,180,181,183 Irving, E. A., 9-10,49,203,215,216,275, 277, 341, 345, 346, 348, 349, 361, 372,396,451 Italian Convent and Sisters, 150, 229, 244, 307, 325, see also Canossian Sisters and their schools
Jockey Club, 212 Johnson, F.B., 234,239 Joset, Mgr. Theodore, 143 Junior Technical School, 354
Kadoorie, Sir Ellis, 202n, 326,336,397 Kai Fongs, 339,371 Kam Tin, 88n, 89,90,93,105,117-27 Kidnapping, 143,210,211 Kindergartens, 49-51,215,260,264,349 King George V School, 217 King's College, 214n, 349,351,352 King's Park, 215 Kotewall, (Sir) Robert, 348,399-403 Kowloon, 51, 61, 66, 87, 88, 91, 93, 94, 140, 201, 206, 209, 215, 216, 217, 260, 269, 270, 275, 282, 291, 292, 321,322,326 Kowloon British School, 201,217,321 Krone, the Rev. R., 132 Kung Sheung Yat Po, 398,400-401
La Salle College, 353 Language factor, 10, 14, 26, 31, 69-70, 145, 150, 162, 166, 177, 180, 182, 183,185,186,187,189,221-22,223, 226, 227, 228, 231-34, 300-301, 320-21,341,345,346,347,352,354, 356,357,406,408,436,451,452 Lau Chu Pak, 346,348,468 Leadership, educational, 357 Lee Wing-kwong, 370 Lee Yau Chuen, 348 Legge, James, 9, 17n, 19, 88, 142, 143, 144, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 158, 162n, 174,175,176-77,178-80,183, 185-87,188,319,323-24 Li-ying College, 87,88,89,93,105 Lindsell Committee on Teacher Educa-tion, 359 Lo Hsiang-Lin, In, 88n, 117 Lo, (Sir) Man Kam, 243,469,470 Lobscheid, W., 8, 9n, 27-30, 148, 150, 185,186 LokSinTong,471 London Missionary Society, 17,19-20, 49, 142, 143, 148, 158, 167n, 209, 220
Lowcock, H., 232,234 Lowe, Robert, 191-92 Lucky tally, 292 Lugard, Sir Frederick, 219,280,281 Lung Chun Yi Hok (or Lung-chin Free School, Kowloon City), 88,91,94
Macau, 9,143 MacDonnell, Sir Richard, 31,199n, 208, 226 Man Mo Temple, 174, 176, 211, 290, 291,292,468,469,470 Man Mo Temple Free School, 211, 290, 291 Manson, Patrick, 244 Maps, 102-104,159-61 Maryknoll Convent School, 350,358 Maryknoll Sisters, 351 Maryknoll Sisters' School, 351 Matriculation examinations, 345, 354, 356,358,436 Medical examinations for school chil-dren, 346,347,351,436 Medical Faculty, University of Hong Kong, 200n, 370-, 442-44 Medical Officer of Schools, 351,436 Medical School for the Chinese, Hen-nessy's suggestion, 233 Medium of instruction, 10, 20, 69-70, 198, 226, 231-34, 341, 356, 359, 407-408,452 Missionaries, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8,15,16,17, 18,19-20,21-22,23,25,26,27,39, 48, 49, 69, 72, 74-75, 88, 91, 94, 128-32, 138, 139-42, 143-53, 158-59, 162n, 163, 168, 169-72, 173-78,181-84,187,188,189,191, 192, 195, 198, 203, 208, 209, 215, 220,228,235,245,247,250,278 Model syllabus for vernacular schools, 352 Mody, H.N., 208,219,337-38 Montessori, influence on Hong Kong early childhood education, 49,50 Morrison Education Society, 9, 20-22,
131,143,144,158,161 library, 207 Morrison Education Society School, 9, 20-22, 131, 142, 143, 146, 161-62, 163-67,174,175,177,183 site and building of, 143,163 Morrison Hill, 143,174,193 Morrison, J.R., 19,163 Morrison, Robert, 19,163 Mui-tsai, 255-56,263,395 Munsang College, 51,66,351,361 Music, 24-25, 156, 164, 179, 183, 209, 356,359
New History, 12-14 New Territories, 87,88,90,93,100,105, 110-13,117-27,132, 206, 216,281, 341,357,359,361,364,433-35 Ng Choy, 196n, 236-37,239,240 Noise in the classroom, 14,32,129 Normal School, 199,211, 212, 348,351, 371 Northcote Training College, 344,359
Objectives of this work, 4,5,6,12-14 Oral history, 13,51,66,464-66 Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission, 353,354,453 Overseas Chinese Education Commit-tee, 351 Overseas Education Planning Commit-tee, 352 Oxford Local Examinations, 213, 261, 331 Ozorio, C.E. de Lopes e, 212
Parents' pragmatic attitude, 27, 217n, 224,227, 228 Pari-passu system, 220,346,436,451 Paternalism, 2-3,68,289,370-72 Payment by Results, 192n, 204,269,217 Penang, 191 Periodization, 15,195,206 Petitions (1901), 197-98n, 201n, 215 Physical education, 114-16, 138, 150,
EDUCATION IN HONG KONG - PRE-1841 TO 1941
161-62,212,344,352,358,359,408 Physical Training class for teachers, 352,
358 Plague, 215,269-70 Play, children's, 112 Playgrounds, 112,272 Po Kok Free School, 353 Po Leung Kuk, 204,210,214,289 Polemical literature, 10,33-35,228-31 Police Schools, 208 Political considerations, 2, 198n, 203,
204,270-71,289 Politics in schools, 198n, 220, 270-71, 283,287,289,350,401-403,407 Population, 135-37,139-40,179,181-83,
195,341,343 Portuguese community, 230 Pottinger, Sir Henry, 17,143,167-68 Pre-apprenticeship training, 354 Pre-British Hong Kong, 1,87-138 Pre-Chinese Hong Kong, 87 Press,
local (general), 23-25, 158, 179-30, 397-98 local (Chinese language), 209, 237, 397-98,400-401
local (English language), 23-25, 128-32, 158, 179-80, 240, 271-74, 278-30,283,370-72,397-98
Price, J.M., 36,234
Primary education, 48-50, 82, 92, 100, 173, 207, 220, 344, 345, 352, 355, 397-98,405-406,407,452,454-60, 467,468-71
Primary schools, 25,49,66,71,143,144, 289-93,351,355,357,462-63
Private schools (general), 28, 66, 149, 195,204,208,220-21,276,282-83, 344, 345, 351, 352, 355, 356, 397, 405-406,409,433-35,451,453,463, 467,472
Private vernacular schools, 28, 66,149, 220,276,282-83,347,405,406,409, 433-35,467
Professionalization, 203 Professor of Education, 396,407,461
Propaganda, anti-British, 398-400 in schools, 204,289,345 pro-Government, 398,400-401
Protected Malay States, comparison of Hong Kong with, 265
Public Gardens, 152,236-37
Pui Ching Middle School, 354
Pupil health care, 311,346-47,351,360, 436,470 spectacles, 470
Pupils, 2,8,15,21-22,30,32,34,38,52, 74-78,83,85,128-29,147,154,155, 162,164-67,183,186,225,226-29, 232-34, 243, 272-74, 293, 296-97, 321-23, 350, 401^03, 405-406, 413-32,451-52,461,472 age of, 129,130,210,219,406 records of physical history, 360
Queen's College, 38-39, 49, 203, 215, 216,217-18,219,220,240,274,276, 293,295,296-97,298,326-32,346, 350, 407,461,474, see also Central School, and Victoria College
Queen's Recreation Ground, 215 Questions in Commentary section of book, 13,92-93,142,205-206,345 purpose of, 13-14
Racial discrimination, 47-48,197n, 201n, 236-37, 272-77, 321-22, 362-67, 372,397
Ragged schools, 185
Raimondi, Bishop Timoleone, 149,211, 228,229-30
Reformatory, 152,198,202n, 208,229-30
Religious question, 7-9, 203-204, 207-11,228-31
Respect for Scholars, 70-71
Revised Grant Code (1879), 204,211
Revised Grant Code (1914), 345-46
Rhodes Studentships, 361
Rivalry between British and American
educational efforts, 370 Robinson, Sir Hercules, 178 Robinson, Sir William, 264,324,330 Rockefeller Foundation, 348-49 Roman Catholic schools, 143,144,145, 146, 149, 150, 152, 153, 209, 211, 228-31 Roman Catholic opposition to first Grant Code, 209 Rote-learning, 21-22,28,31,41,129-32, 168,233,234,322,405 Rowell,T.R.,10 Rules, 27,240,243 Ryrie, Phineas, 208,210,234
Sayer, G.R., 344,408 Scholarships, 100, 209, 212, 216, 279, 324,328,359 School Certificate Examination, 353, 354,356,358 Syllabus revision, 358 School day, 152,162,183,185,227,234, 240-42,345,409-11 School gardening, 355 School life, 240,243,310-18,409-32 School magazines, 51, 212, 240, 409, 413-32 School of Chinese Studies, 352 School rules, 240,243 School timetables, 240-42,409-11 Schools, see under individual school-names unregistered, 83,472 Seamen's Strike, (1922) 341,396 Secondary education, 48, 207, 352,356, 358,451 Secondary schools, 49, 66, 71, 295-98, 309-18,319-36,358,359,361,368, 369,401,402,407,409-32,433-35, 436,451,461,466,474,476 Secretary of State for the Colonies, 3,7, 26,167,211,216,232,250,264-65, 275-77,352,355,367,395,398,404 Secularist movement, 148,228 Self-strengthening Movement, 196,208,
228 Shuck, J.L., 23,161,294 Sin Sui Study Hall, 94,108-109 Singapore, comparison of Hong Kong with, 179,233,352 Sinologues, group of, 48^9 Smale, Sir John, 210,235-36 Smith, Albert, 153,155 Smith, George, 146, 147, 150, 177-78, 181-84,194,248,319 Social fragmentation, 70,141,157,179, 341-43 Society for the Promotion of Female Education in the East, 50n, 188 Sollis,CG.,358,360 South China Morning Post, 283,370-72 Ssu-shu, 92,94,112-13,466-67 St. Andrew's School, 148,149 St. Joseph's College, 150,198, 212, 244,. 325,326,333-35 St. Louis Reformatory and School, 34, 152,198,208,228,229 St. Louis' College, 152 St. Mary's Canossian College, 358 St. Paul's Co-educational College, 346 St. Paul's College, 66,146,147,153,161, 175,184,198,207-10,244,295,325, 335-36 St. Paul's Convent School, 145n, 409, 474 St. Paul's Girls' College, 346,401 St. Paul's Girls' Secondary School, 145n St. Paul's Magazine, 409,413-32 St. Saviour's College, 150, 153, 206, 209-10,229,326 St. Stephen's College, 51,66,201,202n, 217,219,326,463 St. Stephen's Girls' College, 218, 401, 476 St. Stephen's Preparatory School, 218 Stanton, the Rev. Vincent, 143,144,145, 169-71,173-74 Statistics, 72-78,135-37,192,293,472-73 Stewart, Frederick, 30-31,32-33,35,38, 71n, 142, 151-53, 178, 193, 199,
206-10, 221-27, 228, 231, 232-34, 239, 264,272n,321-23,327-28 Stokes, G., 8n, 36, 38,151n, 199n, 218n, 220n, 297n, 298n Straits Settlement, comparison of Hong Kong with, 347 Strike and Boycott (1925-26), 341, 343, 350,397,398^03 Stubbs, Sir Reginald Edward, 371, 373,
395,398-99 Study halls, 94,108-109,112-13 Study-groups, 200,214,271n Subsidy Code, 358,361,405 Sung Hok-P'ang, In, 88n, 90n, 93n, 105,
117-27 Supervision, need for, 36,283-89 Swimming, 212,220,360
. Tang family, 93-94,105-13,117-27 Tang Fu Hsieh (or Tang Foo), 93,105 Tang Siu Kin, 469 Tarrant, William, 23,157-59 Teacher education, 36, 71, 147, 199,
202n, 206,211-12,218,225-26,237, 297,344,346,359,367-69,435 by correspondence course with China, 360
Teachers, qualities of, 3, 49-51, 70-71, 84-^5, 173, 180-81, 223, 232, 237, 405,453,466
Teachers' salaries, 50,129,330,453,463, 464
Teaching methods, 21-22,28; 32,44,50, 84, 88, 92, 129-31, 133, 155, 162, 166-67,168,183,190,216,222-26, 232-34, 282-83, 311, 320-21, 405-406,452,455,459-60
Technical education, 69,152,202n, 206, 215,218-19,229,253,262,264,274, 324-25,334-35,348,353,354,355, 357,358,433,435,477
Technical Institute, 202, 218-19, 325, 352,358 Textbooks, 26, 84, 95, 99, 146, 166-67, 265-69,271,290,292,352,405,407,
455,468 Three Principles of the People (or San Min Chu I), teaching of 352,403 Trade schools, 229, 344, 353, 355, 358, see also Technical Education
Tung Wah Group of Hospitals, 211, 233n, 245, 289-93, 294, 299, 352, 370-72,468-71
Tung YiTong, 66-67
University in Hong Kong, lack of, at beginning of twentieth century, 274 proposal to establish, 218-20,278-31, 336-38 University (1937) Committee, 358,
436-50 University Commission (1920), 347 University Development Committee,
359-60
University of Hong Kong, 202,207,219, 220, 346, 347, 348, 352, 353, 354, 357,358,359-60,361,367-69,370, 396,401,435,436-50,465-66
Vernacular education, 3,195, 216, 217, 220,222-24,276,343,344,345,348, 352,355-56,358,369-370,370-72, 398-99,402
Vernacular Normal School for Men, 348, 351 Vernacular Normal School for Women, 348,351,354
Vernacular schools, 203, 214, 215, 216, 219, 220, 224, 253, 259, 260, 276, 277, 282-^3,288-92,347,348,351, 352,354,355,357,365,369,398-99, 401^02,405-406,409,433-35,453, 454-60, 462-64, 466-67, 468-72, 473, see also Chinese schools
Victoria British School, 218 Victoria English School, 208,210,240n,
see also Hong Kong Public School Victoria College, 240n, 244,256-59,264 Victoria Technical School, 354
Village schools, 7, 87, 145, 154, 155, 159-61, 207, 209, 212, 222-24, 462-64 Vocational schools, 433,435 Voluntarism, 153 Voluntary associations, 66,176,289-93, 468-71
Wah Kin YatPo, 400 Wah Yan College, Hong Kong, 347 Wah Yan College, Kowloon, 349 Wang Chung-yu, 273-74 WangT'ou,33 Weatherhead, Alfred, 153,155-57 Wells, the Rev. H.R., 220,346,372,380, 388-89
White Paper on Colonial Welfare and Development, 361 White, G., 355
Xin'an County, 87,90,100-104,132-34
Yellow Dragon, 240,243 Yeung Chu Wan, 270-71 Yin and Yang, 1 Ying Wa College (or the Anglo-Chi-nese College), 9,19,142,143,144, 148,174,175,220 Ying Wa Girls School, 215 Yuen Long Public Middle School, 357
Zoological (and Botanical) Gardens, 152
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