challenges-for-an-evolving-city-160-years-of-port-and-land-development-in-hong-kong-何佩然 — Page 7

4.26 In 1995, the Civil Engineering Department examined 92 reinforced concrete piers throughout Hong Kong and reconstructed those
that were worn out.
highest year-on-year growth on record. The port also had a bumper year in 1995, when the throughput grew by 25 per cent year on year (Table 4.4). By 1987, the Kwai Chung container port was ranked the second busiest port in the world, up from its previous ranking of third. A year later, it became the world's busiest container port263. The phenomenal growth in re-export trade spurred government efforts to constantly improve the container terminal infrastructure. Since the mid-1990s, port infrastructure has been accorded the highest planning priority.
The expansion of container terminals has encountered various problems. In 1992, when the administration planned for CT 9 on Tsing Yi, it intended to award two of the berths to Jardine, Matheson & Co Ltd. Owing to opposition from the Chinese side, the project could not proceed. after three years of negotiations, Jardine Matheson
agreed to relinquish its rights to operate the berths. Construction commenced in 1996 and the first berth was commissioned on 22 July 2003. On full completion, CT 9 will operate six berths. With the commissioning of CT 9, container throughput rose to 20 million TEU264 in 2003. By 2005, when CT 9 becomes fully operational, it will have a planned annual handling capacity of 2.6 million TEU265. It is envisaged that CT 9 will help lower charges266 and enhance Hong Kong's competitiveness, thereby accelerating the growth of container port traffic. In recent years, the freight industry has returned to a growth track. It is imperative for the government to reassess the future prospects of this industry and undertake studies on site selection for CT 10 and its viability 267.
New Port Facilities
In 2001, with almost 300 piers located throughout the territory, transport links
Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)
227
Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)
Table 4.5
Pier Work Expenditure (1982-2003)
(unit: HK$'000)
Expenditure
Year
Work Item
1982
Construction-Cheung Sha Wan pier
1982-1985
New North Point vehicular ferry pier
186
1982-1987
Chai Wan temporary pier and public square
427
1982-1988
Second North Point ferry pier and covered pedestrian walkway
1,371
1982-1989
Construction-two Sai Wan Ho piers
55,006
1982-1989
Sham Shui Po pier and phase one reclamation
1,706
4.27 Construction of the Outlying Island Ferry Piers (Central) in progress. (1997)
1983-1984
Construction-Tso Wo Hang pier, Sai Kung
642
1983-1985
Tai Miu Wan (Joss House Bay) pier and reclamation
2,168
1983-1985
Kwun Tong ferry pier, vehicular ferry pier and waiting area
9.499
1983-1985
Extension-Tsim Bei Tsui pier, Deep Bay
592
1983-1987
Mirs Bay holiday camp temporary pier
7,750
1984-1989
Yung Shu Wan ferry pier, Lamma Island
9,771
1985
Construction- one military pier
1
1985
Construction-one Correctional Services Department pier
1986
Additions-marine police pier facilities
1986-1991
Improvements-Cheung Chau pier
9,199
1987-1989
Construction-three piers at the Western Wholesale Market
1995-1999
Construction -Sok Ku Wan No 2 pier, Lamma Island
31,405
1996-1997
Construction-Gemini Point pier
1996-1998
Construction-three Sai Kung public piers
1997
Construction-Sai Kung and Sam Ka Tsuen piers
1998-1999
Stonecutters Island Government Dockyard jetties
1998-2003
Reconstruction-Kat O Chau, Peng Chau, Cheung Chau and Wu Kai Sha public piers
18,209
Construction-fireboat berth at West Kowloon Reclamation and Tai Pai Kok pier
1999-2001
Reconstruction-Tung Lung Chau public pier
1999-2003
Reconstruction-Pak Sha Wan public pier, Sai Kung
29,637
2000-2003
Reconstruction-Tai Lam Chung pier, Tuen Mun
30,030
2001
Reconstruction- Kadoorie Pier
2001-2003
Total
Reconstruction-Hei Ling Chau pier
15,109
222,707
Sources:
between the outlying islands and the urban areas were efficient and convenient. According to data from the Hong Kong yearbooks and the Treasury, the government invested over HK$223 million on piers between 1982 and 2003. In the 1980s, the major pier projects were headed by the two-pier development at Sai Wan Ho between 1982 and 1989, which involved an investment of HK$55 million. Other high-value projects included: the $9.77 million Yung Shu Wan ferry pier in 1984-1989, the $9.5 million Kwun Tong ferry pier and vehicular ferry pier in 1983-1985, and the HK$9.2 million extension of Cheung Chau pier in 1986-1991. These projects spanned a number of years and each involved sums close to HK$10 million. These were the important pier developments completed in the 1980s. As for the minor pier projects, the work carried out on the temporary pier at Chai Wan in 1982-1987 was the least expensive. It still incurred an expenditure of HK$430,000. This shows the growing levels of investments in public piers. In the 1990s, the majority of pier projects were undertaken on the outlying islands to improve links with the urban areas. The two major projects were the construction of Sok Ku Wan No 2 pier on Lamma Island in 1995-1999, and the redevelopment of Sai Kung's Pak Sha Wan public pier in 1999-2003. These piers cost HK$31.4 million and HK$29.64 million respectively. It is apparent that investment in piers in the 1990s far exceeded that in the 1980s.
By the twenty-first century, pier-building techniques have come more mature and advanced. It cost between HK$10 million and HK$50 million to construct a pier, with an average pier costing HK$25 million 268. The construction of piers is no longer limited to the provision of basic facilities for passenger embarkation and disembarkation, and the loading and unloading of cargo. It also has an aesthetic function and provides of passenger comfort 269.
In 2001, the Civil Engineering Department spent HK$22 million on repairs and maintenance for the 28 ferry piers owned by franchised operators and the 100- plus government and public piers. Of the sum, HK$12 million was related to ferry piers. To reduce the wear and tear on piers and protect the environment, the department
1999-2000
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1981-2001.
Annual Report of the Director of Accounting Services and the Accounts of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Govern-
ment Printer, 1982-1997.
Accounts of the Government for the Year Ended 31st March, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1998-2003 The Treasury webpage: http://www.info.gov.hk/tsy/intrnet/index.html
plans to replace the timber fenders used on the 28 franchisee-owned ferry piers and the 100-plus public piers with fenders made of recycled plastics. The recycled plastic fenders are made of plastic waste that has undergone special treatment and a pressing
Challenges for an Evolving City
228
229
4.28 Timber fenders are susceptible to wave erosion.
Challenges for an Evolving City.
4.29 Appearance of pier after the installation of plastic fenders.
1
Environmental Protection
Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)
process. The material is then reinforced by the addition of fibre glass. These fenders have passed a series of tests such as density, hardness, tensile and compression. They have the same degree of hardness as the timber ones, but generate less friction. The timber fenders have an average life span of five years, which is drastically shortened to just two years when installed at the busy piers. The recycled plastic fenders, on the other hand, are 400-500 per cent more durable. Although plastic fenders are more expensive, they actually cost one-third as much as timber fenders in the long run, after taking into account the cost of maintenance and replacement 270.
In the late 1960s and early 70s, the distance between Central and Tsim Sha Tsui, separated by Victoria Harbour, was about 1,600 metres. The distance was reduced by 50 per cent to just 800 metres in 2003271. Victoria Harbour is shrinking in size, while vessel traffic is increasing. The moving ships are generating bigger waves inside the harbour. After five years of research, the Civil Engineering Department has produced a wave-absorbing seawall that curtails the impact of waves. The conventional seawall is normally a vertical wall. Waves that hit a seawall will be reflected back with an equal amount of force. The larger the force of impact, the stronger the wave reflection. The wave-absorbing seawall is no longer a solid wall, but with holes inside. When waves hit it, part of the wave energy flows inside the seawall through the holes and reduces wave reflection by half. This type of seawall costs $150,000 per metre, about 150 per cent more expensive than the conventional vertical seawall. The Civil Engineering Department conducted trials on this new type of seawall in 2002. After evaluation of trial results, it may consider installing wave-absorbing seawalls at areas in the inner harbour most affected by strong waves.
Sea transport linkage between Hong Kong, Kowloon and the New Territories. has been enhanced by improving pier facilities. As for other port facilities, the primary concern has now shifted to the protection of the harbour and the environment. This reflects the growing importance the community attaches to the natural environment in the twenty-first century.
Environmental - Friendly Fill Material
Since 1990, the government has reclaimed about 2,100 hectares of land for the construction of a new airport, housing units, port facilities, roads and other infrastructure 273. Hong Kong began undertaking epoch-making projects from the 1980s, this prompted the government to source new fill material, using constantly improving methods. In an era where economic development took precedence over everything else, the extraction of seabed resources as fill material was just considered new means of furthering economic development. In 1988, sand was confirmed as a suitable fill material after test samples were drilled from seabeds. In 1989, the Marine Fill Committee of the Geotechnical Engineering Office used computers to manage, allocate and utilise fill material resources based on the requirements of public and large-scale private-sector projects274. It also evaluated seabed marine sand samples obtained from more than ten locations within the waters of Hong Kong 275.
The early years were plagued by low environmental awareness. Many of the reclamation areas were mere rubbish dumping grounds, with little effort spent on waste separation. Beginning in the 1990s, the waste was first collected by the various rubbish transfer stations located throughout the territory. It was then disposed of in the landfills that are managed by the Environmental Protection Department. In 1995, the government decided to restore 13 closed urban landfills and make them environmentally safe for new land uses. Restoration work began on Tseung Kwan O Stages I and II/III, and five other landfills before 1997. For the restoration of landfills at Siu Lang Shui, Ngau Tam Mei, Ma Tso Lung and Gin Drinkers Bay, work was scheduled to begin before the end of 1998276. In 2003, the strategic landfills were located in the remote areas in West, South East and North East New Territories in order to minimise disruptions to the daily lives of the people.
Inert construction and demolition material is used in reclamation as fill. The Civil Engineering Department builds public filling areas in suitable sites to collect
230
231
4.28 Timber fenders are susceptible to wave erosion.
Challenges for an Evolving City
4.29 Appearance of pier after the installation of plastic fenders.
Environmental Protection
Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)
process. The material is then reinforced by the addition of fibre glass. These fenders have passed a series of tests such as density, hardness, tensile and compression. They have the same degree of hardness as the timber ones, but generate less friction. The timber fenders have an average life span of five years, which is drastically shortened to just two years when installed at the busy piers. The recycled plastic fenders, on the other hand, are 400-500 per cent more durable. Although plastic fenders are more expensive, they actually cost one-third as much as timber fenders in the long run, after taking into account the cost of maintenance and replacement270.
In the late 1960s and early 70s, the distance between Central and Tsim Sha Tsui, separated by Victoria Harbour, was about 1,600 metres. The distance was reduced by 50 per cent to just 800 metres in 2003. Victoria Harbour is shrinking in size, while vessel traffic is increasing. The moving ships are generating bigger waves inside. the harbour. After five years of research, the Civil Engineering Department has produced a wave-absorbing seawall that curtails the impact of waves. The conventional seawall is normally a vertical wall. Waves that hit a seawall will be reflected back with an equal amount of force. The larger the force of impact, the stronger the wave reflection. The wave-absorbing seawall is no longer a solid wall, but with holes inside. When waves hit it, part of the wave energy flows inside the seawall through the holes and reduces wave reflection by half. This type of seawall costs $150,000 per metre, about 150 per cent more expensive than the conventional vertical seawall. The Civil Engineering Department conducted trials on this new type of seawall in 2002. After evaluation of trial results, it may consider installing wave-absorbing seawalls at areas in the inner harbour most affected by strong waves.
Sea transport linkage between Hong Kong, Kowloon and the New Territories has been enhanced by improving pier facilities. As for other port facilities, the primary concern has now shifted to the protection of the harbour and the environment. This reflects the growing importance the community attaches to the natural environment in the twenty-first century.
Environmental - Friendly Fill Material
Since 1990, the government has reclaimed about 2,100 hectares of land for the construction of a new airport, housing units, port facilities, roads and other infrastructure 273, Hong Kong began undertaking epoch-making projects from the 1980s, this prompted the government to source new fill material, using constantly improving methods. In an era where economic development took precedence over everything else, the extraction of seabed resources as fill material was just considered a new means of furthering economic development. In 1988, sand was confirmed as a suitable fill material after test samples were drilled from seabeds. In 1989, the Marine Fill Committee of the Geotechnical Engineering Office used computers to manage, allocate and utilise fill material resources based on the requirements of public and large-scale private-sector projects274. It also evaluated seabed marine sand samples obtained from more than ten locations within the waters of Hong Kong 275.
The early years were plagued by low environmental awareness. Many of the reclamation areas were mere rubbish dumping grounds, with little effort spent on waste
separation. Beginning in the 1990s, the waste was first collected by the various rubbish transfer stations located throughout the territory. It was then disposed of in the landfills
that are managed by the Environmental Protection Department. In 1995, the government decided to restore 13 closed urban landfills and make them environmentally safe for
new land uses. Restoration work began on Tseung Kwan O Stages I and II/III, and
five other landfills before 1997. For the restoration of landfills at Siu Lang Shui, Ngau
Tam Mei, Ma Tso Lung and Gin Drinkers Bay, work was scheduled to begin before the end of 1998276. In 2003, the strategic landfills were located in the remote areas in West, South East and North East New Territories in order to minimise disruptions to the daily lives of the people.
Inert construction and demolition material is used in reclamation as fill. The
Civil Engineering Department builds public filling areas in suitable sites to collect
230
231
Challenges for an Evolving City
4.30 Pak Shek Kok Public Filling Area. (1998)
Table 4.6 Refuse Transfer Station Distribution (1990-2012)
4.31 The Pak Shek Kok Public Filling Area was used to build Hong Kong Science Parks af- ter site formation works. (1999)
Estimated Recurrent Cost (HK$M/year)
this type of material and form new land. At the end of the twentieth century, the public filling areas were located in places such as Tseung Kwan O, Pak Shek Kok, Tuen Mun, Tsing Yi, Tung Chung and Penny's Bay. Details of the public filling areas are provided in Table 4.9.
Inert construction and demolition material, also known as public fill, includes excavated earth, building debris, rubble and concrete. In 2003, Hong Kong had five pubic filling areas, barging points and stockpiling areas: Fill Bank at Tuen Mun Area 38, Public Filling Barging Points at Quarry Bay and Sai Ying Pun, Mui Wo Public Fill
Facility
Date Commissioned
Designed Capacity (tonne/day)
Capital Cost (HK$ M)
Kowloon Bay Transfer Station
9 Apr 1990
1,800
198
69
Island East Transfer Station
Sha Tin Transfer Station
16 Nov 1992
1,200
381
83
29 Oct 1994
1,000
201
31
Island West Transfer Station
West Kowloon Transfer Station
1 May 1997
1,000
637
49
19 Jun 1997
2,500
630
71
North Lantau Transfer Station
1 Jun 1998
1,200
242
24
Outlying Islands Transfer Facilities
13 Mar 1998
610
303
43
North West New Territories Transfer Station
14 Sep 2001
1,100
216
21
North East New Territories
2007
Transfer Station
1,100
496
67
South East Kowloon
2012
Transfer Station
3,000
804
90
Source:
Table 4.8
Public Filling Area Distribution (1999-2003)
(unit: million cubic metres)
Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)
Location
Period in Use
Reclamation Volume
Surcharge Volume
Cumulative Remaining
Intake Capacity
Environmental Protection Department webpage: http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/waste/data/facilities.html
Tseung Kwan O Area 137 Reclamation Stage II Tung Chung Development Phase III A Reclamation Pak Shek Kok Reclamation Stage III
Jordon Road Reclamation Phase III
Oct 1999-Feb 2004
2.73
1.22
3.50
0.45
Dec 1999-Dec 2002
3.52
1.2
4.72
0
Jan 2000-May 2002
1.10
0.16
1.26
0
May 2000-Mar 2003
0.38
0.38
0
Table 4.7 Landfill Distribution (1993-1995)
Pak Shek Kok Remaining Works
Aug 2000-Apr 2002
2.25
0.58
2.83
0
Facility
Date Commissioned
Designed Capity
(million cubic metres)
Capital Cost (HK$ million)
Estimated
Tseung Kwan O Town Centre Reclamation Phase III Stage II
Mar 2001-Apr 2003
1.12
0.42
1.54
0
Recurrent Cost (HK$ million/year)
Tuen Mun Area 38 Reclamation Stage II
Sep 2001-Oct 2004
3.91
1.20
5.11
0
West New Territories Landfill
19 Nov 1993
61
2,190
132
Infrastructure for Penny's Bay Development Contracts 1 & 2
Mar 2002-Jun 2006
3.59
0.50
3.81
0.28
South East New Territories Landfill
26 Sep 1994
43
2,661
189
North Tsing Yi Reclamation
Jul 2002-Jul 2006
0.20
0.03
0.23
0
North East New Territories Landfill
Source:
1 Jun 1995
35
1,176
118
Fill Bank at Tseung Kwan O Area 137
Fill Bank at Tuen Mun Area 38
Oct 2002
0
5.66
2.59
3.07
Jun 2003
0
3.20
1.39
1.81
Environmental Protection Department webpage: http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/waste/data/facilities.html
Source:
232
Civil Engineering Department internal records.
233
4.33 Sorting facilities at the Tuen Mun Area 38 Public Filling Area.
(2001)
Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)
Challenges for an Evolving City
234
4.32 Aerial view of the Tuen Mun Area 38 Public Filling Area. (2001)
Stockpiling Area, and Fill Bank at Tseung Kwan O Area 137. The Port Works Division of the Civil Engineering Department is in charge of the issuance of dumping licences to lorry owners, authorising the disposal of public fill in the public filling facilities.
Disposal of Dredged Mud
Since 1993, the Fill Management Committee has classified mud dredged from seabeds into contaminated and uncontaminated types. According to the licensing regulations of the Environmental Protection Department, the disposal of contaminated mud falls
under the jurisdiction of the Fill Management Division of the Civil Engineering Department. The Port Works Division is responsible for the design of the purpose-dredged confined contaminated mud pits at East Sha Chau277, the only disposal site in Hong Kong for contaminated mud. Staff from the Civil Engineering Department cap the seabed pits after the dumping. The Civil Engineering Department has undertaken geotechnical,
environmental and ecological studies in the waters around East Sha Chau to assess the impact of mud dredging and dumping works. It also looks for feasible ways to minimise the adverse impact on mud dumping on the marine environment. The confined contaminated mud pits are subjected to stringent monitoring. When the deposited mud reaches the designed level, the mud pits will be capped by a layer of clean mud up to three metres in thickness to separate the contaminated sediments from the marine environment 278. The mud layer covering the seabed pits is of the same type as that found in the nearby waters. After seven years of environmental monitoring, the department observed no adverse trend in water quality, sediments or marine life in the vicinity of East Sha Chau279. Designed in 1996, the mud pits had a capacity of just 300 million cubic metres 280 At the end of 1997, the Civil Engineering Department utilised an empty marine sand borrow pit for the contained disposal of contaminated mud.
The sediment classification system used in Hong Kong between 1992 and 2001
classified dredged sediments into three categories based on the level of contamination
by seven heavy metals. If the sediments contained one or more of the listed heavy
metals with contamination levels within Class C limits, they had to be sent to East Sha
Chau for disposal. On 1 January 2002, the government introduced a new testing system
for dredged sediment. In addition to the chemical tests prescribed by the 1992 Sediment
235
4.34 Grab dredgers were deployed at
the Penny's Bay Reclamation. (2000)
4.35 Trailer suction cutter
dredgers were de- ployed at the Penny's Bay Reclamation. (2000)
ATTENDAV
Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)
Challenges for an Evolving City
236
Classification System, biological tests are made to accurately determine the toxicity level. The new system complies with the 1996 Protocol to the Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Waste and Other Matter-the London
Convention. Besides chemical testing of heavy metals to determine contamination levels, the Class C dredged material must now undergo biological screening. Should it fail the test, it will require special disposal or treatment. The Civil Engineering Department
conducted testing on the toxic mud dumped at East Sha Chau and found that between 20 and 50 per cent of the sediments passed the biological tests 281. Sediments that are classified as non-toxic under the new system do not require contained disposal. The new system could slash the cost of disposing dredged or excavated sediments and prolong the service lives of the East Sha Chau contained contaminated mud pits 282.
The East Sha Chau contained contaminated mud pits are close to Lung Kwu
Chau and Sha Chau, a marine sanctuary for the Chinese white dolphins. There are increasing concerns over the water quality in that area. The green group, Friends of the Earth, criticised the dumping of fill material for reclamation on the ground that it would increase the quantity of suspended particulates in seawater. This will lead to diminished levels of dissolved oxygen, making it difficult for the micro-organisms in
the sea to absorb the essential nutrients such as sunlight and oxygen. Eventually, these micro-organisms will die and inflict severe damage on the ecological environment283.
According to the Environmental Protection Department monitoring statistics on dredged marine mud, the waters off East Sha Chau do not contain high concentration
of heavy metals. In actual fact, the marine mud inside the dolphin sanctuary, which
is close to the mouth of the Pearl River, contains much higher levels of heavy metals. To determine whether the disposal of marine mud could result in higher seabed toxicity, the Environmental Protection Department monitored the toxicity levels of mud pits that contained contaminated mud, as well as the marine mud outside the mud pits and in some smaller stretches of waters. The 1999-2002 data revealed that higher toxicity levels were recorded by marine mud lying far away from the capped mud pits than
that located close to the pits. Marine mud taken from the waters off Lung Kwu Chau, which forms part of the dolphin sanctuary, showed higher levels of heavy metals such as potassium, copper, mercury and lead, than that found at East Sha Chau284. As a result, the green groups pressed the government for onshore disposal of dredged sediments. The government will be facing a Herculean task to find hundreds of hectares of suitable space within Hong Kong to accommodate the sediments, not to mention the air pollution risks associated with onshore sediment disposal 285. Diverse methods of sediment disposal are employed in different countries. Hong Kong elects to place toxic sediments inside capped mud pits, while China settles on the method of disposing of sediments in relatively uninhabited areas that are endowed with strong water currents, and makes use of the currents to flush and dilute the toxic waste 286.
The dredged sediments do not always end up in the mud pits. An example of alternative treatment is the clearance of shipyards undertaken at Tsing Yi North in August 2001 to make way for reclamation. After the clearance, the Civil Engineering Department engaged independent environmental consultants to study the extent of land contamination at the shipyards. The consultants found that an estimated 90,000 cubic metres of soil was contaminated by hydrocarbons and heavy metals. For soil contaminated with both hydrocarbons and heavy metals, the Civil Engineering Department applied biopiling to facilitate biodegradation of the hydrocarbons through the micro- organisms inside the soil. The solidification method was then applied to soil contaminated by heavy metals by adding cement and water, resulting in a soil-cement mixture. After the mixture dried completely, it formed a hard mass and locks up the heavy metals. It will take the department four years to complete the soil decontamination work on an area of just 3.2 hectares287. This illustrates the expensive and time-consuming procedures involved in treating sediment waste.
Since 1990, the authorities have expended HK$290 million on marine fill resources and sediment disposal management. Of this sum, approximately HK$170 million was
237
Challenges for an Evolving City
238
SHA CHAU
Marine Traffic Limit for Contaminated Mud Disposal
CMP #
CMP (Va
FG
CMP IVb
CMP (Va
/CMP JUD
CMP Ic
CMP Wild
CMPI
CMP lic
CMP lib
NEILINGDING ISLAND
Tai O
Breakwater
HONG KONG INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
Outer Deep Bay
MARINE FILL RESOURCES, MUD DIS SAL AREAS AND MAJOR RECLAMATIONS
DISSAL
YANTIAN
MIRS BAY
MFC
Area of proposed reclamation
Extent of reclamation under review
DEEP BAY
Tuen Mun
North of Lantau
8
Urmston Road
East
EAST SHA CHAU
CONFINED
CONTAMINATED
MUD PITS
GUISHAN ISAND
West Sokos-
HONG KONG INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
ZHIZHOU ISLANDS
ALLOCATIONS OF MARINE BORROW AREA
Brothers 4Mm*
Tai Ho
Penny's Bay Stage 2
Tung Chung
LANTAU ISLAND
*•. SOKOS
Allocation Project (Contrect Name!
Allocated
Ho.
Fill Volume
#23
C19 - Engineering Works for Backup Area & Infrastructure
37.00
NEW TERRITORIES
TSING
YI
Jordan Road Reclamation Phase Ill
Green Island
Southeast Kowloon
Development
KOWLOON
Western Coastal Road
& Road P2
Tseung
Kwan O
Central Reclamation Phase III
Route 7
Wan Chai Reclamation
Phase II
TOWN
CENTRE
EXTENSION
HONG KONG ISLAND
#23 (Reserved)
#23
Hei Ling Chau Typhoon Shelter
#23
South Tsing Yi 31 Mm
West of Sulphur
Channel
14Mm* (8 Mm3)
Yung Shue Wan
Sai Wan
CHEUNG CHAU
South Cheung Chau
MMA
East Lamma Channel
(South)
44 Mm3
#30 West Po Toi
18Mm
South Mid-T
East Tung Lung Chau
PO TOI
0
10 Km
WALINGDING ISLAND
SCALE
SANMEN ISLANDS
Q
4.36 Marine fill resources, mud disposal grounds and major reclamations in Hong Kong.
East of Ninepin
NANAO
PANYU
DONGGUAN
SHENZHEN
Pear
ZHONGSHAN
River
VICTOR ROCK (under water)
Eastem Waters
Estuary
South of Victor Rock
35 Mm3
Key Plan
18 Mm3
10 Mm❜
24 Mm3
1 Mm3
24 Mm3
-9 Mm3
32 Mm*
32 Mm❜
TUONING ISLANDS
HUDONG
HUYANG
HONG KONG
Reclamation in progress
Area currently gazetted for sand dredging and mud disposal
Allocated marine borrow area
Open sea mud disposal area (Uncontaminated mud)
Exhausted sand borrow pit for disposal of uncontaminated mud (dkshed argin – proposed)
Contained disposal pit for contaminated mud
(F = {1}}ed + copped, & – active. ? – planned.
FG-filled and being capped)
Sand deposit
Extent prior to dredging
Sand deposit with
constraints on dredging
(0.9. awironmental limitations,
thick overburden, etc. }
Sand deposit - not being used
on environmental or other grounds
Proposed Major Road or Highway
Nota:
1. Reclamation areas are indicative. 2. Volume of sand -
3.
4.
14km
(8km)
Existing Remaining after extraction
for current allocations
This drawing supersedes MFC-0016
Up-to-date Information is available from
MFC Secretariat. CEO. CED.
Tel (852) 2762 5555. Fax (852) 2714 0113
e-na}} = co_pwdaced.gov.hk
Web Site : http://www.csd.gov.hk/eng/services/
services_f.htm
MARINE FILL RESOURCES,
MUD DISPOSAL AREAS
|AND MAJOR RECLAMATIONS
FILE NO
8 March 2004
DATE
GCFM 5 / 2 / 20 - 1C
DRAWING NO.
MFC-001H
SCALE
AS SHOWN
-51 Mm
PREPARED BY
24 Mm3
28 Mm
5 Mm❜
DANGAN ISLAND
Locations and Volumes of Sand Already Extracted
PORT WORKS DIVISION
CIVIL ENGINEERING OFFICE CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
GOVERNMENT OF THE HONG KONG
SPECIAL ADMINISTRATIVE REGION
on behalf of the MARINE FILL COMMITTEE
Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)
239
4.37 Shing Mun River, Sha Tin.
4.38 Bioremediation is used to remove odours emitted
from the bed sediments of the Shing Mun River.
Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)
spent on field investigations, with the balance of HK$120 million outlaid on environmental impact assessments and other consulting services. The two disposal sites for uncontaminated mud were located south of Cheung Chau and east of Ninepins. Since October 1994, the Fill Management Committee has backfilled the empty sand borrow pits with uncontaminated mud. Backfilling works were carried out at the exhausted marine borrow pits located south of Tsing Yi, north of Lantau, east of Tung Lung Chau and the Brothers 288. Maintenance dredging of the harbour, navigational fairways, anchorages, typhoon shelters and drainage outfalls is indispensable. The official policy is to avoid seafloor dredging save in exceptional
circumstances.
Dredging undertaken in present-day reclamation projects involves the implementation of mitigation measures to minimise the adverse impact on the environment. Such measures include the use of silt curtains around the dredging areas and closed grab
dredgers. The aim is to curtail the release of contaminants from dredged marine sediments, so as to avoid causing damage to the surrounding waters 289.
In 1999, the administration amended the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance
and expanded the protected geographical area from central Victoria Harbour to Tsing Yi and Lei Yue Mun290. The government introduced the Harbour Area Treatment Scheme
and in 2001, sewage collected from Kowloon and the northeastern part of Hong Kong Island was sent to the Stonecutters Island Sewage Treatment Works through a deep tunnel conveyance system. In addition to going through a screening process, 70 per cent of the effluent is subjected to chemical treatment.
Improvement of the Shing Mun River
The development of Sha Tin New Town created enormous land resources for industrial and housing uses. Beginning in the 1980s, effluent generated by commercial, industrial, livestock and domestic sources was discharged indiscriminately into the
Shing Mun River, resulting in severe pollution. This caused the accumulation of contaminated. sediments on the riverbed and released obnoxious odours. In the early 1990s, the government enacted the Water Pollution Control Ordinance (Cap. 358). While it succeeded in preventing further worsening of the river, it failed to remove the polluted sediments accumulated on the riverbed. In May 2001, the Civil Engineering Department, in association with the Environmental Protection Department, began the first stage of the Shing Mun River improvement works. The project consisted of three major parts:
1. Bioremediation: A chemical mixing and dosing system and injection equipment were imported from Canada. With the use of a bioremediation vessel, the diluted calcium nitrate solution would be injected into the polluted sediments to provide oxygen for oxidation. This accelerates the decomposition of organic contaminated material in the sediments. A total of 22 hectares of contaminated riverbed was to be treated.
2. Dredging: Dredging was to be performed on a section of the Shing Mun River between the Hong Kong Sports Institute and Man Lai Court in Tai Wai. The purpose was to remove the large volumes of contaminated sediments built up on the riverbed, as well as removing the silt that blocked the stormwater drain outlets.
3. Artificial river bank: A 250-metre section of artificial river bank was to be reconstructed.
The first stage works cost HK$45 million. Bioremediation works began in May 2001 in the Shing Mun River main channel opposite Garden Vista, Jat Min Chuen, City One Shatin City One and Garden Rivera, to remove the polluted sediments 29'. The project was completed in January 2003292. In May 2003, the Civil Engineering Department started the second stage of environmental improvements. The works involed had an estimated cost of HK$39.9 million and were expected to take three years to complete. The major work items were:
1. Bioremediation: Bioremedial work focused on the midstream and upstream stretches of the river's main channel, namely, areas not covered by the first phase and involved approximately 19 hectares of polluted riverbed.
2. Dredging: Dredging was to be concentrated on the downstream stretch of the Shing
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Mun River and the drain outlets. It would involve the dredging of about 10 hectares
of riverbed and the removal of 110,000 cubic metres of contaminated sediments
from the riverbed.
3. Artificial river bank: It would be necessary to line certain sections of the river embankment with one-metre-wide artificial river banks, so as to prevent the exposure of rubble and sediments during low tide.
The Civil Engineering Department is responsible for monitoring both phases of environmental improvement works on water quality and sediment treatment and removal. In October 2003, tests conducted by the Environmental Protection Department revealed that the concentration of odour-causing sulphides in sediments fell from 2,294 milligrams per litre of water (2,294 mg/l) pre-bioremediation to less than 5 mg/l
after bioremedial treatment, a reduction of over 99 per cent. The level of E. coli
found in the Shing Mun River, a main indicator of water quality, dropped by 99.9 per cent. Before the commencement of improvement works in 2001, an environmental group, Green Power, commissioned The Open University of Hong Kong to carry out tests on the water quality of the Shing Mun River. The test results found 270,000 colony-forming units of E. coli per 100 millilitres (270,000 cfu/100 ml) of water. By 2001, the E. coli count dropped to 30,000 cfu/100 ml. Improved results were obtained
in 2003 with bacteria counts of less than 1,000 cfu/100 ml recorded from January to June. The January count was the best with only 140 cfu/100 ml 293.
In 2003, while the water quality of the Shing Mun River made significant improvements, the river recorded more frequent red tide outbreaks. More in-depth research is required to find out what causes the formation of red tide. A spokesman from the Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department pointed out that red tide occurrence was attributable to many factors such as sunlight, nutrients, salinity, water temperature and currents, and was not necessarily related to bioremediation works. An academic opined that to achieve permanent improvements in water quality, attention must be paid to the polluted water of Tolo Harbour, which backflowed into the Shing Mun River during high tide and contaminated the river water 294.
The Shing Mun River has undergone dramatic changes in the past two decades. In the early 1980s, it was abused by discharges of human, industrial and livestock waste. Since 2001, large-scale restoration work has been carried out to improve the water quality. The treatment of the river bears testimony to society's rising demand for a better ecological environment. Nowadays, improvements to water quality are a vital link in conserving the ecology of Hong Kong. The management of river water quality within the territory of Hong Kong should be extended further and not confined to the Shing Mun River in Sha Tin. The Civil Engineering Department also must make dedicated efforts to improve the quality of life for the people of Hong Kong.
Tourism Facilities
Hong Kong Disneyland
In 1993, the government contemplated building container terminals on Northeast Lantau. This idea was shelved in 1999 when the administration decided to develop this area into a strategic tourist and recreational district. On 13 August 1999, the government gazetted the new blueprint for Northeast Lantau, Penny's Bay and Sunny Bay (formerly Yam O). On 9 November 1999, the Civil Engineering Department released the environmental impact assessment report on the development of Hong Kong Disneyland and the associated infrastructure at Penny's Bay. Eight days later, the administration sought HK$13.569 billion of funding from the Finance Committee for the proposed works295. The international theme park development involves the following projects:
• Reclamation of 280 hectares at Penny's Bay and construction of 3.5 kilometres of seawall;
• Reclamation of 10 hectares of land at Sunny Bay with about 0.7 kilometres of seawalls;
• Road works
1. Building a 4.5-kilometre dual two-lane/three-lane carriageway to connect the
proposed MTR station at Sunny Bay to Hong Kong Disneyland
2. Building a 3.5-kilometre resort road around the theme park
3. Building an 800-metre central pedestrian walkway at the centre of the park;
• Construction of a new MTR Penny's Bay rail line linking Sunny Bay to Penny's Bay;
• Development of Hong Kong Disneyland which includes hotels, retail, dining and entertainment facilities, and a dangerous goods store;
• Construction of two public/ferry piers equipped with four berths;
• Construction of public transport interchanges near the MTR stations at Sunny Bay and Penny's Bay;
• Construction of a public water recreation centre including a 12-hectare artificial lake;
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香港迪士尼樂園環境影響評估研究
Hong Kong Disneyland Environmental Impact Assessment
4.39 On 9 November 1999, the
Civil Engineering Depart-
ment announced the Hong Kong Disneyland Environ- mental Impact Assessment.
4.40 Contract for the Penny's Bay Rec- lamation Stage I project was signed on 15 May 2000. The project involved the reclamation of 200 hectares of land with 3km of seawall and a temporary access road, for a contract sum
of HK$3.98 billion.
✰
*
Chit Inginering Department
期
Stage 1
I war Penny Bay Reclai
Contract Signl - fremont
Part IV Multi-Nucleus Expansion (1982 - 2003)
Challenges for an Evolving City
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• Construction of a 3.5-hectare arboretum for educational purpose;
• Construction of a sewerage network to channel sewage to the sewage treatment
works at Siu Ho Wan;
• Construction of a stormwater drainage system including a 1.2-kilometre open drainage
channel west of the reclamation, and the box and pipe culverts; and
• Construction of government/institution/community facilities including two police posts and a fire and ambulance station 296
According to estimates made in September 1999, land formation cost would amount to HK$8.68 billion, with another HK$4.889 billion spent on associated infrastructure and government/institution/community facilities. The most costly item is the HK$1.52 billion sum budgeted for road works. The reclamation used marine sand and
public fill as fill material. The reclamation and formation works for Phase I of the
theme park project were paid out of the Capital Works Reserve Fund and cost about HK$ 4 billion upon completion. The government reached an agreement with The Walt Disney Company to grant, by way of a private treaty, a 126-hectare site at Penny's Bay to Hong Kong International Theme Parks Ltd, a joint-venture company formed by the government and The Walt Disney Company, for a period of 50 years with a renewal right for another 50 years. Hong Kong International Theme Parks Ltd is required to pay an annual government rent equivalent to 3 per cent of the rateable value of the site, which carries a value of HK$4 billion.
The estimated cost for Hong Kong Disneyland Phase I amounts to HK$14.1 billion. The government and The Walt Disney Company have agreed to finance the construction of the theme park by a mixture of debt and equity at an approximate ratio of 60:40. This equates to HK$8.4 billion in loans and HK$5.7 billion in equity. The Walt Disney Company is to inject $2.45 billion equity by subscribing for shares at HK$1 per share for a 43 per cent ownership in the joint-venture company. It is allowed to dispose of some of these shares but its shareholding must not fall below 1.9 billion
shares. The government puts up HK$3.25 billion at the same issue price and holds 57 per cent of the new company. After the first year of operation, the government is free to sell its shares without a minimum shareholding restriction. The HK$8.4 billion borrowing consists of commercial borrowing of HK$2.3 billion and a loan from the government for HK$6.1 billion. The theme park operator has to repay the commercial loans in full within the first ten years of operation. Repayment of the government loan then follows and this loan is to be repaid within 25 years after the opening of the theme park, with interest rates of between prime rate minus 1.75 per cent or prime rate per annum297
In December 1999, the administration entered into formal agreements with The Walt Disney Company and Hong Kong International Theme Parks Ltd in respect of the development of Hong Kong Disneyland. Reclamation began at Penny's Bay in May 2000, followed by other infrastructural works such as roads, drainage system, sewers and landscaping.
On 1 March 2000, the Civil Engineering Department completed the environmental assessments in accordance with the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance (Cap. 499) and forwarded its findings to the Director of Environmental Protection Department. The assessment exercise focused mainly on the cumulative environmental impact of the theme park development on Northeast Lantau which included Penny's Bay, Sunny Bay, Tsing Chau Tsai East and the connecting roads. It also carried out environmental
assessments on the provision of infrastructure such as leisure facilities, utilities services,
drainage system, slope upgrading and beautification works. Between April and July 2000, the Director of the Environmental Protection Department issued the relevant environmental permits for the project in accordance with the ordinance.
Generally speaking, Hong Kong Disneyland impacts on the environment in
two main areas:
245
4.41 Cheoy Lee Shipyard, located on north-
eastern Lantau. (2000)
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1. The adverse impact of Penny's Bay reclamation on mariculturists in adjacent waters - Between August and December 2000, the work at Penny's Bay generated suspended sediment plumes and turned the water turbid. These plumes caused massive deaths
among red snapper, headgrunt and white blocked snapper, in the Ma Wan and Cheung Sha Wan fish culture zones. These fish species have low tolerance of suspended sediments and were infected with skin lesions that ultimately led to their deaths. The authorities had to compensate the mariculturists based on the findings of an independent review panel298. In addition to ex gratia allowances, the government
had to make compensation payments to mariculturists in Ma Wan and Cheung Sha Wan299.
2. The contamination problems associated with the decommissioning of Cheoy Lee Shipyard located on the north and east shores of Penny's Bay - Cheoy Lee Shipyard, which commenced business in 1964, was engaged principally in boatbuilding, repairs and maintenance. The land occupied by the shipyard was required for the theme park development. In April 2001, the administration compensated the shipyard owner for land resumed. In exchange, the shipyard agreed to voluntarily surrender the site that it occupied. An environmental impact assessment commenced in April and found that 87,000 cubic metres of soil on the site were contaminated. Of the polluted
soil, 48,000 cubic metres was tainted by metals and 9,000 cubic metres by a combination of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOC) and metals. The remaining contaminated 30,000 cubic metres of soil was located in
the southeastern part of the shipyard site. The contaminants were a mixture of dioxins,
metals, TPH and SVOC.
The metal contaminated soil was to be solidified onsite by cement after excavation.
For soil that was tainted by TPH, SVOC and metals, it was to be despatched to To Kau Wan upon excavation for biopiling treatment, followed by cement solidification to immobilise the remaining metals. Meanwhile, soil that was polluted by dioxins, metals, TPH and SVOC was dug up and sent to a thermal desorption plant established at To
i
4.42 Penny's Bay Reclamation Stage I in progress. (2002)
4.43 Penny's Bay Reclamation Works were mostly completed by April 2004.
Part IV Multi- Nucleus Expansion (1982-2003)
4.44 Computer simulated view of Hong Kong Disneyland upon completion.
Kau Wan for treatment. The treatment yielded an organic oily residue, which was to be transported to the Tsing Yi Chemical Waste Treatment Centre in batches for incineration. The soil that was subjected to thermal desorption would then be solidified by cement to immobilise the remaining metals 300. Owing to the need to treat the contaminated soil, the government had to allocate additional funds for the decommissioning project in order to comply with the requirements of the environmental impact assessment (EIA) study 301
The theme park will stage nightly 12-minute fireworks and laser displays between 9:00 pm and 9:30 pm. The authorities have formulated safety and security regulations to govern this activity. Supervision and evaluation of the impact of fireworks displays on the ecological environment are made by way of licensing. When the theme park stages fireworks or laser displays, it is required to comply with the conditions prescribed by the licence. As the licence is only valid for one year, the authorities can alter the licensing conditions on renewal if necessary. To minimise impact on the surrounding environment, the operator, Hong Kong International Theme Parks Ltd, has made an initial commitment to exclude the purchase of any fireworks that contain chromium, lead, mercury, arsenic, manganese, nickel or zinc in their formulation. The Environmental Protection Department has also placed restrictions on the level of noise generated by fireworks displays to comply with the Leg, 15 min 55dB(A) limit at the relevant noise sensitive receivers 302,
1
In response to the EIA study on the construction of an international theme park in Penny's Bay of Northeast Lantau and its essential associated infrastructure, the Civil Engineering Department is committed to the following measures
303.
1. Establishment of an independent Environmental Project Office to oversee the cumulative
effect of construction works undertaken on Northeast Lantau;
2. Planting of not less than 9 hectares of woodland to compensate for the loss of
1.8 hectares of woodland at Ngong Shuen Au due to construction works;
3. Construction of 4.3 hectares of sloping armour rock/concrete seawalls at Penny's Bay and Sunny Bay, and the deployment of 4,350 cubic metres of artificial reefs at Port Shelter, Sai Kung, to enhance the overall marine ecology;
4. Survey and excavation of archaeological sites at Wan Tuk, Penny's Bay and Cheoy
Lee Shipyard to preserve historical relics; and
5. Introduction of a large number of plant species native to South China to beautify
Penny's Bay and maintain the ecology of the existing woodland.
Three methods of filling operations were employed at the Penny's Bay reclamation: bottom dumping, rainbowing and sandfilling by pipeline to designated areas. Either sand or rocks up to a few metres high were then piled on top, and a large cylindrical
vibrating probe was then repeatedly inserted into the ground to carry out vibrocompaction to accelerate soil settlement. Reclamation was performed around the clock, seven days a week 304. The project deployed 10 of the largest trailer suction hopper dredgers in the world, with the largest one capable of holding 25,000 cubic metres of sand. This was twice the size of those dredgers used in the Chek Lap Kok reclamation. The
dredging works removed a total of 40 million cubic metres of sediment, followed by the placement of 70 million cubic metres of sandfill 305. Approximately 3.7 million cubic metres of fill material was deposited each week, the fastest in Hong Kong's reclamation history306. The reclaimed site has been subjected to stringent settlement
monitoring since its completion in 2002. It was estimated that the level of soil settlement would be less than 0.5 metres in the next 50 years 307. The Penny's Bay Reclamation
Stage I works commenced in May 2000 and was completed by December 2002. The site was handed over to Hong Kong International Theme Parks Ltd in January 2003 for the development of Hong Kong Disneyland. The remaining works are expected to be completed one after another before mid-2005308. The Hong Kong government anticipates the creation of 18,400 jobs on the opening of the Disney theme park, with the figure rising to 35,800 over a 20-year period. It also estimates that the project will boost Hong Kong's economy by HK$148 billion over the next 40 years, attracting millions of tourists to Hong Kong each year309.
:
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Summary
Through extensive reclamation, the urban districts tripled in size between 1959
and 1983. The proportion of industrial and commercial land progressively increased, countered by reductions in agricultural land and swamps. Beginning in the late 1970s, the government started planning for a new airport at Chek Lap Kok and formulated the Airport Core Programme. This programme mapped out the growth strategy for Hong Kong for the next two decades. The blueprint of the 1980s focused on land
utilisation in districts such as the northwestern part of Hong Kong Island, West Kowloon, Tsuen Wan and Kwai Chung; and the replanning of urban transport and environment.
Reclamation was the means employed to produce the required land. Large-scale reclamations included the 1,248 hectares of land formed for Chek Lap Kok Airport, the North Lantau Expressway project, the 334-hectare West Kowloon Reclamation and the northwest
Stonecutters Island works. Massive harbour reclamation has altered the face of Victoria
Harbour, resulting in the westward shift of the freight transport nucleus to the Rambler Channel, Tsuen Wan and Kwai Chung areas. After the reprioritisation of Hong Kong's development focus which extended from the north shore of Hong Kong Island and the
Kowloon Peninsula towards West Kowloon and Northwest New Territories, the territory
has evolved from a single-nucleus city into one made up of multiple nuclei.
In the 1980s, the administration developed the New Territories with the construction
of new towns located at Sha Tin, Tai Po, Yuen Long, Tuen Mun, Fanling, Sheung Shui, Tseung Kwan O and Tung Chung. They were comprehensive development areas encompassing a whole range of residential dwellings, commercial developments and industrial facilities. Their emergence reshaped the population distribution in the territory. Small-scale reclamation projects still took place in the old city core and they included the 35- hectare project for the expansion of the Kowloon-Canton Railway terminus at Hung Hom, the 20 hectares of land reclaimed in Central for the Hong Kong Island terminus of the Airport Express Line, and the development at Aldrich Bay on Hong Kong Island
East. The emergence of modern-day Hong Kong is largely attributed to man-made
factors. When one reviews today's core commercial areas and the boundaries of yesteryear's
City of Victoria, one will notice that almost all the land in the urban districts was
produced by reclamation. The development history of the city of Hong Kong resembles a journal that details the dates and scale of reclamation works.
Since the mid-nineteenth century, reclamation has been viewed as a panacea for resolving the perennial problem of insufficient land resources, especially the acute shortage of land in the core areas. The most obvious benefit of reclamation is that the
new land can be tailor-made to meet user requirements. Thus, the reclamation works
in the past were either undertaken in the urban centre where there was desperate need for additional space or at its peripheral districts. This extra land supply bolstered the development of commerce and industry, improved community facilities and transportation networks, and augmented public spaces. To the authorities, reclamation only involved technical considerations such as the soil characteristics of the seabed, the upgrading of public transport facilities, with minimum compensations paid on land resumptions. The land produced was well-located and generated enormous government revenue from its sales. In the early twentieth-century, reclamation was even regarded as a good solution to the problem of ship mooring in the harbour.
Although reclamation has been the backbone for the territory's growth, there are rising concerns over its impact on the ecological environment. The Hong Kong government publication The Shape of Things to Come: An Overview of the Role of Harbour Reclamations in the Future Development of Hong Kong310 lists its shortcomings. For instance, the upsetting of hydrological conditions results in the deterioration of water quality. The excavation or filling operations of sandfill may adversely affect
the environment. The deployment of heavy vehicles to transport fill material could cause traffic chaos at reclamation sites. The expansion of coastal land necessitates the reprovisioning of facilities along the shorelines and compensation to the owners of affected Marine lots. Port infrastructure such as submarine pipelines and cables, sewerage systems, etc., has to be reinstalled. For reclamation projects undertaken in the twenty-first century, the government has to examine critically the negative ecological impact and social cost and not be preoccupied with the economic and social benefits.
The establishment and development of a city rely on the availability of land,
but the social and historical factors must also be considered in determining the pace and priority of development. From the mid-nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries, the majority of reclamation works were concentrated on the City of Victoria, located on the northern part of Hong Kong Island, and the eastern and western shores of the Kowloon Peninsula. The signing of the Convention on the Extension of Hong Kong Territory at the end of the nineteenth century purportedly expanded the territorial boundaries, but the stage of development in the New Territories was markedly inferior to that achieved in the urban districts even twenty years after the Second World War. The
New Territories continued its role as the city's supply base for foodstuffs. The influx of Chinese immigrants after the Republican Revolution in 1911 did not alter the government's
commitment to maintain the City of Victoria as the nucleus of the territory.
It was not until the early 1980s that a multi-nucleus city design came to the fore. In 1984, the Chinese and British governments agreed on Hong Kong's reversion of sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997. This allowed the government to change the
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long-held practice of using Boundary Street to distinguish between sovereignty and administrative authority. The new towns blossomed after the mid-1980s, following
the construction of large-scale transport networks and modern community facilities.
These new towns differed from the satellite towns that were developed in the early post-war years. The satellite towns were built with the principal functions of providing accommodation for a rapidly escalating population and abundant supplies of cheap labour for industry. Community facilities and transport links to other parts of the territory were rather primitive. As a result, these satellite towns failed to evolve into new nuclei of the territory before the 1980s. It was only the establishment of comprehensively developed new towns in the 1980s that thoroughly transformed the New Territories.
Nowadays, the issues of environmental and urban landscape protection must be addressed when contemplating land formation. Moreover, the development of a modern city requires grappling with the treatment of municipal waste and the inert construction and demolition material. When a city ceases reclamation and abolishes its public filling areas, alternative disposal methods must be found for the recyclable waste material and other types of waste generated. In 2002, over 15.8 million tonnes of inert construction and demolition material was sent to public filling areas. This figure grew to 19.6 million tonnes a year later. Eventually, the existing public filling facilities will run out of capacity. The administration is considering the possibility of discharging the inert material into the East Lamma Channel, but this entails prior environmental impact assessments. On 31 March 2004, the Hong Kong government and the State Oceanic Administration signed a Co-operation Agreement on Cross-boundary Marine Dumping. Under the agreement, the Hong Kong government can apply for the export of dredged material and inert construction and demolition material to the Pearl River Delta for use in reclamation projects. However, the proposals must comply with the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter, the London Convention 1972 and the 1996 Protocol, as well as all the relevant
regulations and standards of both the mainland and Hong Kong. The co-operation agreement can help alleviate pressure on Hong Kong's marine dumping grounds and fill banks, as well as reducing land development requirements in Guangdong. This will be beneficial to sustainable development in both Hong Kong and Guangdong province3.
In the twentieth-first century, Hong Kong has broken free of the bondage of
the unequal treaties signed in the nineteenth century. The nucleus of the territory has expanded continuously, with the hub of Victoria Harbour moving westwards in the wake of the opening of Chek Lap Kok Airport and the completion of the Northwest New Territories transport networks. The future development of Hong Kong will have to tie in closely with the development strategy of the Pearl River Delta as well as the nation's overall plan. The construction of port infrastructure is no longer concerned with mere technical practicality; it is also valued for its aesthetic and eco-friendly functions. This allows Hong Kong to assume its rightful place as one of the major metropolises in the world.
Conclusion
This research into the 160-year history of port and land development analyses the transformation
of Hong Kong from a remote fishing village into an international metropolis. It observes the process as well as the characteristics from the standpoint of urban development. Over that period, the city achieved sustained development with its limited economic and human resources, despite
the countless challenges posed by the external environment as well as internal shocks induced
by structural changes. It is worth understanding the experiences that Hong Kong has gone through when pondering the direction of its future development.
A dearth of land resources and a soaring population were two key impediments to the growth of a city. According to government statistics, Hong Kong had a population of just 7,450 in 1841; the figure grew to 6.81 million by 2001. This represents a 914-fold increase and equates to an average compounded growth rate of 4.35 per cent over the 160-year period. In 1842, Hong
Kong Island had a land area of just 75 square kilometres. In 2003, the territory of the Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region encompassed Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula,
the New Territories and over 230 outlying islands. Together with the substantial land created by reclamation, the total area of Hong Kong expanded to 1,102 square kilometres - an almost 15-
fold increase. Notwithstanding such dramatic increase in absolute terms, land resources were still far outpaced by the growth in population. As a result, the building up of the city and the distribution of its population largely centred on districts developed by the authorities. That was
the case in the mid-nineteenth century and such phenomenon still exists in the twenty-first century. The pace of land development was also closely linked with the external economic and political environment and the vicissitudes of the territory. As such, the expansion of its city nucleus.
accurately portrayed the urbanisation of modern Hong Kong.
In the mid-nineteenth century, the colonial government sought to develop Hong Kong into a Victorian-styled town. Located in the city nucleus were the principal government agencies that included the law court, police station, military barracks, arsenal, gaol, post office and the Harbour Master's Office. Besides such government facilities, there were also church to conduct religious activity; dockyards, piers and wharves to support commercial and trading activity; hospital, school, market and cemetery to provide community and social services; as well as
recreational and leisure grounds such as a racecourse, a cricket club and a garden. In the early
days, the development of the Chinese community depended largely on the initiatives of local
organisations. A Chinese-populated community was established at Upper Bazaar (the area to the
west of present-day Aberdeen Street and Hollywood Road north, around Kau U Fong and Gough Street) and Lower Plaza (the area around present-day Jervois Street and Bonham Strand). The community was home to many Chinese shops and businesses that were engaged in trade and
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Conclusion
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commerce. In 1844, Upper Bazaar was redeveloped into a commercial area for the foreign business community. The original inhabitants of Upper Plaza were forced out and relocated to a site. around Tai Ping Shan Street. Gradually, Sheung Wan evolved into a locality populated predominantly by Chinese. Reconstruction work was undertaken in the Chinese area after a blaze ravaged the Bonham Strand Praya, Sheung Wan, at the end of 1851. The project also involved the expansion of the trading zone in the Chinese community and resulted in the first reclamation performed in Hong Kong. Modern techniques were employed to level mountains and reclaim land from the sea. The first reclamation overcame the geographical handicaps and established the blueprint for future land development. The expanded waterfront along Bonham Strand attracted many Chinese commercial organisations such as Nam Pak hongs (south-north trading companies), Qianye gonghui (money-changer guild), jinshanzhuang (trading companies) and yinhao (Chinese native banks) to set up operations in Hong Kong. This was in stark contrast with the westernised Central, a district that was occupied by expatriate merchant houses, western-styled warehouses and piers. Such development characteristics demonstrated the uniqueness of the City of Victoria in the nineteenth century.
Flatland was a rarity along the northern shore of Hong Kong Island. As early as the 1860s, the government proposed to expand Central through reclamation in the face of a rising population. Nevertheless, efforts to develop Central and Wan Chai were stymied until 1889, when the authorities resolved the disputes with the military and the private enterprises in respect of property rights for the coastal lots. During the years 1889-1903, the administration carried out reclamation along the shoreline for a stretch of two miles between the gas works in Western District and Murray Pier in Central. This was known as the Praya Reclamation Scheme and the projects created about 59 acres of land. Another major reclamation plan, the Praya East Reclamation Scheme, was implemented between 1921 and 1931 from Central and Wan Chai; it yield 86 acres of new land. These two large-scale reclamation schemes established the mechanisms for future reclamations. These covered the aspects of planning, progress monitoring, contracting framework and the application of techniques. The complicated rights and obligations of the government versus those of the private owners over issues such as the undertaking of construction works, the ownership of reclaimed land, the determination of land values and government rent, and the future use of the land reclaimed, were able to be resolved. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the City of Victoria gradually expanded to Western District, then Wan Chai and Causeway Bay. The growth of Hong Kong Island along the coastline in a west-east direction was able to balance the needs of society against the political and economic development considerations. The construction of port infrastructure, piers and seawalls, and repairs carried out in the wake
of typhoons and rainstorms only furnished trade with the bare minimum of support. Most of the
larger piers were erected by the private sector; public piers were few in number and were constructed
without an overall plan. On the whole, urbanisation proceeded at a slow pace along the northern coastline of Hong Kong Island during the latter half of the nineteenth century.
In 1860, the Kowloon Peninsula was incorporated into the territory of Hong Kong. Constrained by military considerations and insufficient financial means, the government was unable to carry out any sizable land development projects at the time. Fragmentary reclamation works were largely undertaken by the private sector along the western shore of the peninsula. Urbanisation
of the Kowloon Peninsula took place almost half a century later than that of Hong Kong Island.
In the first half of the twentieth century, the population in Hong Kong was growing at faster rate than in the second half of the nineteenth century. New immigrants entering Hong Kong were no longer predominantly single males; many of them were nuclear household members from the upper-middle class. Hong Kong's competitiveness as a trade hub for the Asia Pacific region was enhanced by emigrants from South China and the South East Asia region. To cement Hong Kong's leading position in Asia Pacific and maintain close relationship with China, the government had to develop its transport networks aggressively. Construction of the Kowloon-Canton Railway began in the early twentieth century and the rail line commenced operation in October 1910. The permanent Kowloon railway terminus at Tsim Sha Tsui was approved in 1912 and the terminal building was commissioned in 1916. The development of Kai Tak Airport began in earnest in the mid-1920s and the airport started its commercial operation in the mid-1930s. The construction
and expansion of transport networks represented the government's strategy to maximise Hong Kong's economic development potential following the massive inflows of population and capital. Such infrastructural projects involved detailed forward planning and vast capital sums; they were not impromptu measures. This demonstrates that the administration began to formulate
longer-term development blueprints for the territory in the early twentieth century.
By the first half of the twentieth century, the land development projects undertaken were of a considerable scale. Not only did the authorities have to plan with the risks of storm surges and typhoon attacks in mind, they also had to integrate the new and existing support facilities in the reclaimed area. The issues to be tackled included: water supplies, road link-ups, transport arrangements, and the connection of new and old sewers. In a densely populated district, at times it was more difficult to carry out the community co-ordination work than the
engineering works. The smooth expansion of the city nucleus owed much of its success to the systematic planning of reclamation projects. In the early years after the Second World War, land development activity was concentrated in New Kowloon, and the satellite towns of Tsuen Wan,
255
Conclusion
Castle Peak (now Tsuen Wan) and Sha Tin in the New Territories. The objective was to boost the burgeoning industries and enhance their growth potential. Integrated urban planning which struck an appropriate balance between the circumstances of the various districts and other factors
such as population growth and economic development needs was not implemented until the end of the 1970s. After the mid-1970s, the development of districts in the New Territories favoured
a balanced approach, with emphasis on support facilities. The emergence of new towns enabled the expansion of the city nucleus from the northern coast of Hong Kong Island and the southern end of the Kowloon Peninsula to the New Territories. This allowed a more even distribution of
population throughout the territory of Hong Kong. To support rapid global economic growth and the opening-up of China's economy, the Hong Kong government has placed much emphasis on the building of new districts since the 1980s. In addition, the administration undertook
comprehensive planning for the overall development of the urban regions. New infrastructure projects such as the Airport Core Programme, the redevelopment and expansion of West Kowloon, and the new tourism facilities exemplified by Hong Kong Disneyland, are the key impetus behind Hong Kong's ascendance as a global metropolis in the twenty-first century.
By the early twentieth century, waters off the northern coast of Hong Kong Island were reduced to depths of about 20 feet due to silting in the Pearl River Delta. At such depths, it was not possible to accommodate ocean-going vessels with displacements of 9,000 tons and draughts of up to 10 metres (33 feet). The major fairways of Victoria Harbour required regular dredging and maintenance. Continuous investments of human resources are indispensable for upholding the reputation of Victoria Harbour as a deepwater port, capable of servicing the largest vessels; and to cater for the booming maritime trade. Port infrastructure including large container terminals, anchorages, typhoon shelters and cargo working areas have played a vital part in making Hong Kong the world's busiest container port since 1988. In 2003, a total of 298 piers were built, managed and maintained by the government. They were spread across all the urban regions and some of the outlying areas.
With a paucity of natural resources, Hong Kong faced extreme difficulties in accommodating a soaring population with such limited land space. To economise on resources, the creation of land was often undertaken by way of reclamation in the densely populated districts. Before the 1990s, such method of land generation was warmly embraced by the community; this was even deemed a sound strategy to alleviate population pressure in the overcrowded urban regions. The supply of new land has enabled the construction of new roads, housing developments, and leisure and community facilities. These added infrastructure and amenities have improved the quality
of life in the local communities and are conducive to the development of commercial activity. The reclaimed land has also proved to be a boon to government coffers and has laid a solid base for the development of the territory. The adoption of reclamation made possible the continued expansion of urban areas. Up until the first half of the twentieth century, reclamation generated about 81 hectares (200 acres) of land. According to Lands Department's estimates, the area of land reclaimed grew by approximately 4,000 acres (9,884 acres) during the post-war period up to the early 1980s. By 1983, land areas classified as urban were three times larger than in 1959. Figures from the annual yearbooks reveal that Hong Kong increased its land space by about 2,000 hectares (4,942 acres) between 1980 and 1997. In all, reclamation accounts for approximately 6,000 hectares (14,826 acres) of land, equivalent to 5.4% of Hong Kong's total land area.
Land development and population growth are elements that interact and influence one another. To cater for population growth, development projects sprouted up one after another around the periphery of urban districts. Such phenomenon accounted for the strip-like pattern of development in the City of Victoria and the emergence of the Kowloon Peninsula, as well as
the concentration of cultural and community activities and landmark structures along the shores
on both sides of Victoria Harbour. Since the mid-nineteenth century, these shores of Hong Kong
Island and the Kowloon Peninsula have become instantly recognisable symbols of Hong Kong and moulded Hong Kong's unique culture. With a slowing population growth rate and much improved new town developments in the New Territories, the severity of urban land shortage was lessened. With improving living standards and rising educational levels, the expectations of the citizens towards urbanisation go beyond economic benefits. Other factors such as the protection of the ecology systems and the conservation of natural resources are now accorded high priority. Hence, reclamations proposed by the administration in recent years have been mired in controversy as the community is evaluating these projects with the environment in mind. In view of the impact reclamation has had on Hong Kong's ecological environment, the community is understandably worried about that further reclamations could cause irreparable damage to the beautiful Victoria Harbour, a natural heritage of Hong Kong.
The historical review of land development and port expansion in Hong Kong since the mid-nineteenth century undertakes a comprehensive analysis of the rationale behind reclamation and the characteristics of the major reclamation projects. This could perhaps assist us to make an informed evaluation of the benefits and drawbacks of infrastructural works on the development of Hong Kong, and lay a firmer theoretical foundation for the determination of the future direction of such activity.
Challenges for an Evolving City
256
257
T
Notes
Notes
1
2
3
4
5
Endacott, G. B., A History of Hong Kong, London, Oxford University Press, 1964; Endacott, G. B., Gov- ernment and People in Hong Kong, 1841-1962: A Constitutional History, Westport, Conn. Green Press, 1982; Eitel, Ernest John, Europe in China: The History of Hong Kong from the Beginning to the Year of 1882, Hong Kong, Oxford University Press, 1983, reprint; Sayer, Geoffrey Robley, Hong Kong 1841- 1862: Birth, Adolescence and Coming of Age, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press, 1980, reprint. The above English-language writings placed the research emphasis on the development of the colonial government. They considered Hong Kong as a barren land and that Chinese culture was substandard; few mentions were made of the Chinese community. Such research approach dominated Hong Kong history study for over one hundred years.
Yu Shengwu and Liu Cunkuan, Shijiu shiji de Xianggang (Hong Kong in the Nineteenth Century), Hong Kong, Unicorn Books Limited, 1994; Yu Shengwu and Liu Cunkuan, Ershi shiji de Xianggang (Hong Kong in the Twentieth Century), Hong Kong, Unicorn Books Limited, 1995.
Gong Yingyan, Yapian de chuanbo yu duihua yapian maoyi (The Spread of Opium and Opium Trade in China), Beijing, Dongfang chubanshe, 1999.
Chen Duo and Cai Chimeng, Xianggang huigui congshu: Xianggang de jingji (Hong Kong's Return Collection: Hong Kong Economy), Beijing, Xinhua chubanshe, 1996; Feng Bangyan, Xianggang yingzi caituan: 1841-1996 (Hong Kong's British Conglomerates: 1841-1996), Hong Kong, Joint Publishing (HK) Co Ltd, 1996; Feng Bangyan, Xianggang huazi caituan: 1841-1997 (Hong Kong's Chinese Conglomerates: 1841-1997), Hong Kong, Joint Publishing (HK) Co Ltd, 1997.
Plate 2-1 (1845), The 4-inch Collinson Map, Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, Hong Kong, Government Information Services, 1992, p. 128.
21
22
Ho, Pui-yin, Weathering the Storm: Hong Kong Observatory and Social Development, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press, 2003, p. 50.
Ho, Pui Yin, Water for a Barren Rock: 150 Years of Water Supply in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, The Commer- cial Press (HK) Ltd, 2001, p. 6.
23
Sayer, Geoffrey Robley, Hong Kong: 1841-1862, Birth, Adolescence and Coming of Age, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University, 1980, reprint, pp. 23-24; Taylor, E. S., Hong Kong as a Factor in British Relations With China, 1834-1860, London, 1967, p. 30.
24
Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, p. 128.
25
Chiu, T. N., The Port of Hong Kong: A Survey of Its Development, p. 5.
26
27
28
20
29
30
31
32
33
6
Liu Guangjing, Jingshi sixiang yu xinxing qiye (Pragmatism and New Enterprises), Taibei, Lianjing chubanshe, 1990, pp. 556-570.
34
7
"Vessels Detained in British Ports or Captured at Sea by His Majesty's Armed Forces", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong Government, 1914, No 510, pp. 542-547.
35
8
Duncan, John, "Report on the Commercial Development of the Port of Hong Kong", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong Government, 1924, No 14/1924, p. 125.
36
36
"Nautical Chart of Ma Wan and Approaches", Hydrographic Office, Marine Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 1999, 2001, Chart No HK1502.
"Nautical Chart of Harbour: Eastern Part", Hydrographic Office, Marine Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 1999, 2000, Chart No HK0801.
"Nautical Chart of South Eastern Approaches", Hydrographic Office, Marine Department, The Govern- ment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 2000, Chart No HK2502.
"Nautical Chart of Harbour: Central Part", Hydrographic Office, Marine Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 1997, 2000, Chart No HK0802.
Chinese Repository, Vol X, No 5, The Hong Kong Gazette, May 1841, p. 289.
Xianggang Shangye huibao ed., Xianggang Jianzaoye bainianshi (One Hundred Years of Building Con- struction in Hong Kong), Hong Kong, 1958, p. 40.
CO 129/4, "Despatch From Colonial Land and Emigration Office", 9 December 1843, pp. 216-220.
Historical and Statistical Abstract of the Colony of Hong Kong 1841-1930, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1932, p. 1.
"1842 Pottinger's Map", Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, pp. 160-161.
Bard, Solomon Matthews, Traders of Hong Kong: Some Foreign Merchant Houses, 1841-1899, Hong
Kong, Urban Council, 1993, pp. 43-44.
Report from the Hong Kong Land Commission of 1886-1887 on the History of the Sale, Tenure and Occu- pation of the Crown Lands of the Colony, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1887, pp. X-xi.
9
Taylor, D. A., The Port of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Book Marketing Ltd, 1991, p. 7.
37
"1842 Pottinger's Map", Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, pp. 160-161.
10
Chen Gaohua and Wu Tai, Song Yuan shiqi de haiwai maoyi (Foreign Trade During the Song and Yuan Dynasties), Tianjin, Renmin chubanshe, 1981, p. 99.
38
CO 129/2, “Mr Gordon, the Land Officer's Report on the Northern Face of Hong Kong”, 6 July 1843, pp.
152-176.
11
Huang Qishen and Pang Xinping, Ming Qing Guangdong shangren (Guangdong Merchants in the Ming and Qing Dynasties), Guangzhou, Guangdong jingji chubanshe, 2001, p. 30.
39
CO 129/5, "Detailed Account Disbursements of the Land Department From June 1841 to January 1844", 10 February 1844.
12
Chiu, T. N., The Port of Hong Kong: A Survey of Its Development, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press, 1973, pp. 13-17.
40
13
Morse, Hosea Ballou, The Chronicles of the East India Company, Trading to China, 1635-1834, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1926-1929, Vol 2, p. 68.
41
14
Greenberg, Michael, British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800-1842, Cambridge University Press, 1951, p. 206.
CO 133/3, "Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canals, Bridges, Buildings, &c., Not of a Military Nature, Which Have Been Undertaken During the Year", Hong Kong Blue Book, H 2, Public Works, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1844-1882.
"1842 Pottinger's Map", Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, pp. 160-161.
42
CO 129/75, "Memorandum From B. J. Sulivan", 16 April 1859, pp. 309-316.
15
16
The number of outlying islands in Hong Kong has been reduced due to reclamation works. Recent ex- amples of islands being linked up to the mainland include Chek Lap Kok Island and Stonecutters Island.
The total land area of Hong Kong has increased as a result of reclamation; hence different eras show slightly different figures. According to page 1 of Land Utilization in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Government Printer, 1966, Hong Kong only had an area of 1,032 square kilometres. This is even smaller than the figure of 1,060 square kilometres provided by the 1899 colonial government record.
43
44
CO 129/163, "Governor to Earl of Kimberley, Principal Secretary of State", 1 April 1873, pp. 16-22.
CO 129/162, “Mr Wade to Sir Arthur Kennedy", 21 February 1873.
45
Ordinance No 17 of 1873, "To Establish Lighthouses, Buoys, or Beacons Within the Colony”, The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 13 December 1873, pp. 601-603.
46
CO 129/165, “Lights Required for the Hong Kong Government to Be Ordered Through the Crown Agents With Estimated Cost", 12 November 1973.
Challenges for an Evolving City
17
CO 882/5, Lockhart, Stewart, “On the Extension of the Colony of Hong Kong", 8 October 1899, p.
36.
47
18
So, Chak-lam, "Dimao (Landforms)”, Xianggang dili (A Geography of Hong Kong), Guangzhou, Guangdong keji chubanshe, 1985, pp. 18-37.
Ha, Louis and Waters, Dan, "Hong Kong's Lighthouses and the Men Who Manned Them", Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, 2001, Vol 41, pp. 284-285.
48
Ha, Louis and Waters, Dan, "Hong Kong's Lighthouses and the Men Who Manned Them", p. 287.
19
FO 881/75A, pp. 107-109, 135-138.
49
Notice: "Cape Collinson Harbour Light", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 12 February 1876, p. 87.
20
Gray, D. M., "Tropical Cyclones”, The Junk, June 1989, pp. 27-31.
50
Notice: "Cape d'Aguilar Light", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 20 March 1875, p. 114.
258
259
51
The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 12 July 1875, p. 242.
52
The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 27 March, 1875, p. 121; Notice: "Cape Collinson Harbour Light", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 12 February 1876, p. 87.
53
"Report of the Director of Public Works for 1892”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1893, No 9/93, p. 115.
54
CO 129/2, “Gordon to Pottinger", 19 December 1843, p. 445.
55
CO 129/2, “Davis to Stanley", 26 July 1844, p. 435.
56
CO 129/5, "Woosnam to Gordon", 10 January 1844, p. 69.
57
The Friend of China, 10 August 1844.
58
CO 129/6, "Caine, Gutzlaff and Gordon to Bruce”, 21 May 1844, p. 444.
59
CO 129/6, "Caine, Gutzlaff and Gordon to Pottinger", 21 May 1844, p. 440.
60
61
"1842 Pottinger's Map", Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, pp. 160-161.
"1842 Pottinger's Map", Empson, Hal, Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas, pp. 160-161.
62
Challenges for an Evolving City
Talbot, Henry D., "An Outline of the Urban Development of Hong Kong Island During the Nineteenth Century", Dwyer, D. J. ed., The Changing Face of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asia Society, 1971, p. 57.
1
122
82
"Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canal, Bridges, Buildings, &c., Not of a Military Nature", Hong Kong Blue Book, H 2, 1864-1866, using the 1863 exchange rate of £1 = HK$4.8.
83
84
"Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canal, Bridges, Buildings, &c.", Hong Kong Blue Book, 1875, p. 36.
"Return of the Population and of the Marriages, Births and Deaths", Hong Kong Blue Book, 1858.
85
Ho, Pui-yin, The Administrative History of the Hong Kong Government Agencies, 1841-2002, Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press, 2004, pp. 135-138.
86
Price, J. M., “Surveyor General's Report, 18 July 1887: Praya Reclamation Scheme", Hong Kong Ses- sional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1888, p. 8.
87
888
89
"Hong Kong Praya Reclamation Scheme, Mr Chater to Acting Colonial Secretary, 13 July 1887”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1888, pp. 1-2.
"Proposed Reclamation Scheme, Enclosure from Hong Kong and China Gas Co Ltd to C. P. Chater, 9 September 1887", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1888, pp. 16-18.
"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1903", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1904, No 18/1904, p. 193.
"Government Notification No 168", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 8 May 1886, p. 390; “Government Notification No 333", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 28 August 1886, p. 809.
"Government Notification No 115", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 26
March 1887.
90
Notes
63
CO 129/38, "Special Report, by the Police Department of Hong Kong”, 29 December 1851.
91
64
The Friend of China and Hong Kong Gazette, 3 January 1852, p. 2.
65
980
66
CO 129/38, No 89, “Special Report from Police Department to Major Caine”, 29 December 1851, pp. 120- 127; The Friend of China and Hong Kong Gazette, 31 December, 1851,
pp. 426-427.
The Friend of China and Hong Kong Gazette, 3 January 1853, pp. 2-3.
92
93
94
The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 23 April 1887, Vol XXXIII, No 18.
The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 16 April 1887, Vol XXXIII, No 17.
Hong Kong Daily Press, 1 March 1901.
67
"Government Notification No 50”, Supplement to the Hong Kong Government Gazette, Vol 1, No 43, 16 April 1856, p. 1.
95
"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1921", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1922, Appendix Q, Q 65.
68
CO 129/61, “Emigration Office to Treasury", 30 July 1856.
96
"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1921", Q 66.
69
"Report of the Bowring Praya Commission", Supplement to the Hong Kong Gazette, Vol 1, No 43, 22 April 1856, p. 2.
97
"Praya East Reclamation Scheme: Final Report", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1932, No 1/1931, p. 11.
70
CO 129/76, “Proposed Minute of Protest Against 'The Bowring Praya””, 4 February 1859; Memorandum, 5 February 1859.
98
"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1929”, Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1930, Appendix Q, Q 74.
71
2 2 2
72
CO 129/116, “Colonial Secretary to Earl of Carnarvon, Principal Secretary of State", 10 December 1866.
CO 129/116, “Royal Engineers Office to the Assistant Military Secretary", 10 December 1866.
99
"Praya East Reclamation Scheme: Final Report", p. 5.
100
73
The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 28 July 1866, p. 291.
"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1918", Hong Kong Administrative Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1919, Appendix Q, Q 90.
74
CO 129/77, “Office of Surveyor General Estimate of the Expense Necessary to Be Incurred for the Streets in Suburbs, East and West”, 1 March 1860, pp. 358-363.
101
"Praya East Reclamation Scheme: Final Report", pp. 1-5.
102
"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1921", Q 65-67.
75
CO 129/129, “Office of Surveyor General Estimate of the Expense Necessary to Be Incurred for Strand: Government Share of 10 March 1868”.
103
"Praya East Reclamation Scheme: Final Report", p. 10.
104
76
77
"Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canals, Bridges, &c., Not of a Military Nature”, Hong Kong Blue Book, H 2, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1868-1870.
Chen Jinghuai, "Lun Xianggang chaoshang jingji fazhan de lishi guocheng (Discussions on the Economic Development History of Hong Kong Chaozhou Merchants)”, Chaozhouxue guoji yantaohui lunwenji (Proceedings of International Conference on Chaozhou Studies), Guangzhou, Jinan University, 1994, Vol 2, p. 609; Hayes, James, "The Nam Pak Hong Commercial Association of Hong Kong", Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1979, Vol 19, 216.
"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1931”, Hong Kong Administration Reports, Hong Kong Government, 1932, Appendix Q, Q 62.
105
"Return of All Public Works, Civil Roads, Canals, Bridges, &c., Not a Military Nature", Hong Kong Blue Book, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1883, F 8-9; 1884, F 8-9; “Legislative Council No 1", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, 1 March 1884, p. 101.
106
CO 129/210, "Reclamation of Causeway Bay with Report and Plan", 28 June 1883.
107
CO 129/210, "The Swamp at Yaumati", 28 June 1883.
p.
78
79
Chen Huixun, Xianggang zaji (Hong Kong Miscellanies), Hong Kong, Zhonghua yinwu zongju, 1894, p. 32.
CO 129/129, "Proposed Extension of Praya Bonham Strand: Supplementary Report and Estimate No 23 of 1868", 24 March 1868.
108
CO 129/377 "Memorandum in Reply to Messrs Deacon, Looker & Deacon's Letter of 18 April 1911 to the Secretary of State", p. 303.
109
"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1899", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1900, No 14/1900, p. 232.
80
CO 129/170, “Plan of Victoria", 10 March - 6 May 1875, p. 535.
110
81
CO 129/129, "Proposed Extension of Praya Bonham Strand: Supplementary Report and Estimate No 23 of 1868", 24 March 1868.
"Seawall and Godowns at Kowloon", The Hong Kong Government Gazette, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 11 February 1882, p. 78.
260
261
Challenges for an Evolving City
111
112
"Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1900", Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1901, No 16/1901, p. 328; “Report of the Director of Public Works for the Year 1904”, Hong Kong Sessional Papers, Hong Kong, Noronha & Co, 1905, No 14/1905, p. 218.
CO 129/317, "Kowloon Marine Lot 33", 11 June 1903; CO 129/377, “Kowloon Marine Lots 29, 30 & 31", 18 April 1911.
113
Howard, Ebenezer, Garden Cities of Tomorrow, London, Faber and Faber Ltd, 1965, reprint, p. 24.
114
CO 129/520/12, "Development Kowloon Tong Estate", 11 December 1929-1 August 1930.