1969-05-09 — Page 22

頁二第張六第

BETREUDRI WAH KIU YAT PO

1969 文學舍試題預習

歷史科

(廿七) 佑青

HISTORY (27)

1. In what direction did aggression succeed in the

years 1933 to 19397

The period between the two World Ware was one of uneasy peace in Europe, and fighting continued in: several places until 1923. In Russia, there was civil war between the Whites and the Reds of the Bolshevik government. The Turks fought against the Greeks in an effort to regain some of the land lost to them by treaty and the Roumanians plundered the Hungarians. In Italy, dissatisfaction with her gains had led to a wave of unrest, and in Germany, several economic crises had increased the sufferings of her population. But in the midst of this chaos, strong leaders arose to lead their countries out of misery. the most notable among them being Hitler of Germany. Mussolini of Italy, and Lenin of Russia. All three were able to stabilize their countries by the early.. thirties, although in all three cases, this had beer. achieved at considerable cost to the liberty of the peoples.

That all was not well in the world soon became apparent. In the Far East, the growing ambitions of Japan and caused her to invade Manchuria and eat up

the puppet state of Manchukuo under the condemnation of the League of Nations, of which both Japan and China were members, failed to deter her, and she set the example of resigning altogether from that body. Thereafter, from 1933 to 1939; she continued with her aggression of China, gaining control of most of the strategic areas, until the China Incident' became part of the Second World War.

Japan's example was soon followed by Germany. By this time Hitler had come to power on a programme of revenge against the enemies of Germany. He aimed at the restoration of Germany as a great power, and the destruction of the Versailles Treaty. In 1933, he announced himself tired of the allies" broken promised of disarmament, marched Germany out of the League, reintroduced conscription (1935), ordered the German army into the demilitarized Rhineland, Zone (1936) and set up a vigorous campaign for the restoration of German colonias, England and France watched him tear up the Versailles Treaty term by term, unwilling to stop him for fear of provoking · another general European war, and at hear, unable tr deny the right of many of his actions. Thus Hitler was able to carry on with his, expansion in other European countries, knowing that France and England would not stand in his way.

In 1935, the world was faced with another crisis in the form of the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, The League applied sanction, but this van never wholeheartedly executed,, Mussolini let it be known that any attempt to stop him would be regarded as tantamount to a declaration of war, and against England and France backed down. Italy became ao incensed at the attitude of the League that she too left it in 1936.

The international atmosphere further darkened in the year 1938. Having been successful so far, Hitler decided to risk going a step further. In the spring of that year, he marched his newly formed troops into Austria, and at once duolared it merged into the derman Empire, the Reich. This outright flouting of the Versailles Treaty draw a storm of protest from England and France, but these two countries were in no position to take pozitive action. A few months later, Hitler suddenly demanded that the Germans living in the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia should be incorporated into the Reich. It was at this point that England decided not to let Hitler go any

rürtner,

and the Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain flew to Munich for a personal consultation with Hitler. The result of this momentous meeting was the Munich agreement, by which Hitler announced his intentions of making.no further demands than the Sudetenland areas. The relief Europe felt at the Munich Agreement was great, and there was general feeling that the war had been averted. But there

were several quarters in both England and France who realized that Hitler had no intentions of abiding by this agreement.

Six months later in 1938, Hitler made the next move. He invaded Czechoslovakia itself, and at one shot, gained also Bohemia, Moravia, to say nothing of the complete Czech air force, military equipment and the vital Skoda munitions works. At about the age time, he also seized Memel from Lithuania.

Chamberlain was furious at Hitler for having broken, the pledges given personally to himself, and he discarded his policy of aggeasement in favour of one aimed at checking German expansion. The British government offered guarantees of help in case of attack to Poland, Roumania and Freece. Hitler countered by making the Rome-Berlin Axis, a firm military alliance, and this was extended to include Japan. England and France strove to arrive at an agreement with Russia to resist German aggression. But the negotiations with Russia dragged on all through the summer of 1939, and in August, France and England were astounded to learn that Germany and Russia had concluded a non-aggression pact. It was theb that they realized that their caused was lost, and that the world was on the brink of another catastrophe. In September, 1939, Hitler demanded the return of Danzig and the Polish Corridor, and giving no opportunity for the Poles to reply, invaded that country. England and France immediately despatched ultimatum to Germany, demanding the withdrawal of the German trolps from Poland. When no answer came, England and France "declared war on Germany.

2. Show how the Peace of Versailles completed the

overthrow of the settlement made at the Congress of Vienna.

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A comparison of the Congress of Vienna and the Peace of Versailles is almost inevitable, for both were evente of great magnitude, affecting the lives of the peoples they dealt with for years to come. In both cases, they were meetings of the most brilliant. atatesmen proved to be shortsighted, and ignored many of the most important contemporary ideas.

During the hundred odd years between 1815 and 1919 many changes had been wrought in the map of Europe. Although the Congress of Vienna tried to stifle the ideas of nationalism and liberalism, this had not been successful, and the years immediately following 1815 witnessed the struggles of many European nations to be free of the yoke imposed on them by reactionary ideas such as the Divine Righta of Kings. From 1830 to 1870, new countries were continually being set up, in spite of the efforts. of Metternich to maintain the settlement as it was arrived at in Vienna. Belgium had declared herself independent of Holland in 1830; so had Freece bean set free of Turkey in 1832. The widespread disturbances in Europe in 1848 were attempts made by the a till enslaved nations to set up governments of their own based on the best ideas of the French Revolution. The German Liberals at Frankfurt tried to unify the 39 status of the Germanic Confederation the Italians under Charles Albert of Piedmon-Sardinia

tried to rid Italy or Austrian influence, snu'even the Empire of Metternich himself was not free from nationalistic movements. In 1848, Hungary succeeded to declare itself an independent republic, free frön. Austria. although all these movements failed, yet they served to point out the mistakes made at Vienna when nationalism was ignored. After many triala and tribulations, Italy and Germany united themselves (in 1861 and 1871 respectively). Germany, especially, then became a power to be rechoned with in European politics from that time onwards.

The smaller countries in the Balkans were likewise influenced by the prevailing ideas of the 19th century. There, the Turks, who had held away since the 15th century, lost their Empire in Europe. The Greeka became independent in 1932, Serbia in 18561 Roumania was formed from the principalities

of Wallachia and Moldavia and became independent in 1861. Bulgaria was created at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. By the beginning of the 20th century, the Turkish Empire in Europe had peased to exist.

There were other changes in the countries in Europe. In France, the monarchy had given way to a. republic which had been set up after her defeat at the hands of the Germans in 1871. Although this Third Republic faced numerous difficulties at its birth, yet it lasted longer than any other government in France, and survived until the beginning of the „Creat War. If Metternich had been alive; he would never have allowed this, and would have sent the Austrian armies into France to put down the Republic. The Austrian and Russian Empires alone remained stubborn against all changes, and even well into the early 20th century, Vienna still lorded it over thirteen different races. Russia was more medieval than modern.

Throughout the 19th century, the Inqustrial Revolution had caused the governments of Europe to

change their policies. With the demand for rawn materials, new markets and living space, they had bagun to look beyond the continental limits of Europe for new lands to conquer. is early as 1815, England had been the pioneer in this movement when she asked for a compensation, lands outside Europe. This had been the beginning of the British Empire. Slowly, she had gained control of vast areas in Africa and. the Far East, and the other European powers were not slow to follow. Soon, conflicts arose among them, and it was not surprising that one of the reasons for the Great War was this quarrel over empires.

The above changes were achieved over a period of years, but they culminated in the peace settlement arranged at Versailles in 1919. It seemed that the stataeman at Versailles had learnt their lessons wel and they were wise in giving due attention to nationalistic feelings. Three new states were sev up by Versailles, all aimed at gathering together people of the same race, religion, customs and language. The Poles, who had been so shamefully divided throughout the 19th century, were at last given the right to ast up a sovereign state of their own from territory which had formerly belonged to Germany, Austria and Russia. The Czechs and Slovaks were incorporated intu the free republic of Czechoslovakia, and the Balkan states of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia were joined into Yugoslavia. The Baltic republics of Finland, Lithuania, Esthonia and Latvia appeared. New Arab states, freed from Turkish control, wera set up in the Near East. Alsace and Lorraine, which were French in population and character, were returned to France, while the areas of Trent, Trieste and Istria, inhabited mostly by Italians, were returnea to Italy. This recognition of the spirit of nationalism was further carried out in the Mandate system, eat up under the League of Nations. By this former colonies of defeated countries were placed under a protecting power, but who would rule them with the ultimate independence of the natione in mind.

One other factor remaine to be discussed. At the Congress of Vienna, the statesmen had realized thi importance of converted action when dealing with the problems of the world. Thus they had set up the Congress System, whose aim was to maintain peace in Europe. Unfortunately, the Congress System consisted of only the four Great Powers in Europe as they then existed: England, Austria, Russia, Prussia and later on France. None of the smaller countries was represented. Thus the decisions of the Congreas Syatem ignored the views of the smaller nations, and the latter came to regard it as a league of tyrante

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for the suppression of liberty, at Versailles, a similar body of cooperation was set up the League of Nations. All countries, big and small, were invited to join, and all were given equal voice in the decisions, Even the defeated countries were represented in the League, although the United Statea was never a member of her own choice, The League attempted to settle disputes by arbitration, but it also dealt with social problems. It strove to improve labour and health conditions throughout the world. The League was truly international in character

All in all, the Europe of 1919 was vastly different from the Europe of 1815, the most prominent changes being in Central and South Eastern Europe. The common man of 1919 seemed to be better off than his predecessor, although he had just lived through the greatest catastrophe in the history of mankind. After all, hadn't the politicians promised him that the Great War was the war to end all wars1?

Questions for next weeks

1. what were the causes of the Kusso-Japanese War, 1904-1905, and what were its effects on the internal affairs of Russia?

2. What were the main causae of the first Russian

Revolution of February, 19177