1969-04-11 — Page 23

秀教僑華典三弟張六第日五廿月二年酉己麻夏

CK

文中學會考評

歷史科 (廿三)

佑

HISTORY (23)

1. Why did the World War of 1914-1918 begin in the

Balkan Peninsular?

By 1907 the policies of the Triple. Alliance as opposed to the Triple Entente soon clashed in many parts of the world but the regions over which the two groups showed their greatest hostility were Africa and the Balkan Peninsula. The latter had been the battling ground of the great powers since the beginning of the. 19th century, and recent developments had further complicated the rivalry of the powers. The policies of the different European countries towards the Balkans had also changed somewhat. After the Congress of Berlin, Turkey had begun to rely more on Germany instead of England, and German influence and replaced England's in the Ottoman Empire, England decided after 1878 that a number of independent states would be more effective as a barriar against Russian expansion than the mouldering Expire. She viewed with alarm the increasing influence of Germany in the Balkana. Austria had also become more ambitious in the Balkans. and she was anxious to acquire a dominant position there. Although Russia seemed to be more interested in the Far East after 1878 yet she had not completely given up hope in the Balkans. By this time, Gresce, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria had been formed from the Ottoman Empire. But there were still Greeks and Bulgars in Macedonia and the Albanians were still under Turkish ruls. Trouble was bound to arise in districts over which the Turks still exercised their authority. Further, the formation of the new Balkan States multiplied the problems in the Balkans for no state was "satisfied with its existing boundaries or its extent

of influence.

The history of the Balkan states from the Congress of Berlin to 1907 is complicated, but the main events were the expulsion of Russian advisers from Bulgaria and its union with East houmelia in 1885, the eternal strife in Serbia when different parties struggled for power; the suppression of peasant revolts in Roumania and the massacre of Armenian Christians by the Turks in 1908 when the "Young Turks" movement broke out in the Ottoman Empire. The Young Turks demanded constitutional and liberal government on western lines and absolute equality between Christians and Mohammedans, At the same time, Austr annexed Josnia and Herzegovina, although these actions were contrary to the Treaty of Berlin. For a time there seemed the possibility of a general Bruopean war. The Serbs had for many years hoped that their fellow countrymen in Boshia and derzegovina would one day be united with them, but the Austrian annexation destroyed their hopes. The annexation also worsened the political atmosphere in Europe. Russia was now preparing for war in support of Serbia. The Turks themselves were too weak to move against Austria, and furthermore, Germany revealed her support of Austria. Russia at that time was still suffering from her defeat at the Russ-Japanese war and the internal unrest it had produced. She at last backed down. But for many years after this, the enmity between Serbiz and Austria intensifled.

uther countries also took advantage of the general distorganization at Constantinople. Bulgaria proclaimed herself wholly independent of Turkish rule. Italy declared war on Turkey in 1911 and wrested Tripali from her. And before Turkey could recover from these blows she suddenly found herself faced with a new danger. In 1912, the Balkan League of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria declared war against the Turks. The allies overran different sections of Macedonia and made other, conquests with equal ease.

The Turks were forced to make peace. During the war, Germany and Austria supported Turkey and fully expected the Turks to defeat the Balkan League, But the two powers miscalculated badly. In the Treaty of London in 1913, Turkey lost much of her territory including Macedonia and ane was confined to a small area around Constantinople. But the dalkan powers soon fell to quarrelling among themselves over the division of spoils. Both Serbia and Bulgaria wanted Macedonia, which was largely inhabited by Bulgars. The Bulgarians, prompted by Austria, attacked. Serbia in 1913, and the second Balkan War had broken out. The Roumanians also joined in against bulgaria, and Turkey took this opportunity and got back adrianople, The upshot of this war was that Bulgaria was defeated, and the Taty of Bucharest was signed. Bulgaria lost much valuable territory to Serbia, Greece and Roumania,

The effects of these two wars were great autnough, [none of the European powers was directly involved in

the wazo. The Turkish Empire in Europe was now

confined to areas that were racially Turkish Bulgaria nursed her hatred against Serbia and Greece. The gains made by Serbia encouraged her in uniting a1) Serbs in the Balkans under her rule. In this course, she was brought into a headlong cullision with Austria, who ruled over 8 million Serbs in Bosnia and Berzegovina,

Such was the state of affairs when the near zo the Austrian throns, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. Upon investigation, it was revealed that the assassin was a bosnian student who had just returned from an anti-austrian, meeting in Serbia, Austria immediately placed the blame of the murder on Serbia, and presented her with an ultimatum of such character that Sarbia could not possitly agree to it unconditionally, Serbia asked that the dispute be subacted to the arbitration of the Hague Tribunal. But Austria was determined to crush her rival once and for all. After having secured the unlimited support of her ally Germany, Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28. 1914.

WAH KIU YAT PO

At first this seemed to be a localized conflict between Serbia and Austria, but the situation quickly. deteriorated. It must be remembered that both belligerents had powerful allies. Russia naturally would not stand aside and see her fellow Slay country be crushed by a vastly superior power, and began mobilization of her army. Germany demanded that ene stop and when Russia refused, Germany declared war on Russia and then on her, ally France. But France had a treaty of mutual cooperation with England and when Germany further aggravated England by invading Belgium prior to her attack on France, England declared war. Thus the Ruropean powers, bound so closely as they were by alliances, were drawn into the conflict one by one. The match that lit the holocaust happened to come from an abscure town in the Balkans, but it could have come from anywhere. The explosive situation in Europe! had made war inevitable.

What were the main causes of the German deréat the Great War:

in considering the defeat of Germany in the Great War, it must be remembered what a task Germany had to face and what overwhelming odds, In the end, the⠀⠀ Central Powers, four in number, were pitted against a total of twenty-seven countries, including the whole of the British Empire, Canada, India, the French Empire, Japan, and the United States. With such forces behind them, including those of Russia in the first year of the war, it would have been the greatest military disgrace in history if the Allies had lost the war. Germany would have been defeated by the sheer force of numbers alone, but the Allies came close to losing the fight through their uninspired leadership and lack of cooperation

at the start of the war, the Germany armies were better equipped, better trained and much better led than either the French or the British armies. The plan of the attack, drawn up by the German general staff years before, had assumed that a crippling blow delivered to the French might then be transferred to the astern front to oppose the Russians. It was at this point that the Germans made their first mistake In attacking France, the German arules swept through Belgium, and this unwarranted act of aggression. against a neutral country offended the moral conscience of the world. Britain immediately took up the cause of delgium and declared war on Germany, thus bringing with her into the conflict the might and wealth of the entire British Empire. The Germans also understimated. the French armies and the British Expeditionary Force, for even though the latter retreated in face of the German advance, they fought back fiercely. The war on the western front settled into a dreary trench war, where the capture of a hundred yards of land involved. enormous casualties on both sides.

* Germany's second mistake was to under-estimate the speed with which the Russians mobilized their armies. Although the Germans defeated the ill-equipped and badly-trained Russians at the Battle of Tannenburg in 1915, yet Germany was now fighting on both fronts. Austria also suffered defeats in Galicia and at the hands of the Serbs, w, ose territory she had invaded. But Germany and Austrie were soon reenforced by the entrance of Turkey, In September, 1915, Bulgaris was also brought into the war on the side of the Central Fowers,

The powerful British navy also played a dominant role in the defeat of the Central owers. It carried out a blockade of the German coasts. which became mor

effective as time went on, and was maintained throughout the struggle. The German Navy attempted to break the blockade at the Battle of Jutland in 1916, but although both sides claimed to have won, yet the British victory was evident in that the German fleet did not emerge again except to surrender at the end. of the war. It was this inability to break the British blockade that induced Germany to turn to her U-boats. The submarine campaign was very successful first, and tons of allied shipping were sent to the bottom of the sea. In May, 1915, German submarines torpedoed the passenger Liner "Lusitania" off the Irish coast, with the loss of a thousand lives, including 100 Americans. The United States protested so vigorously that Germany agreed to stop her submarine warfare in future. But she went back on nei words in 1917 when the war on land was not going well For her, and her enemies were increasing in strength.

ɔne resumed the unrestricted submarine campaign. The United States then declared war on Germany. The American contingenta soon began to make their presence falt in the battlefields. By the end of September, 1918, Germany's allies had been knocked out and she was left fighting alone. Her armies were fast retreating, and her navy mutinied when ordered out to certain destruction in a last ditch effort to break the blockade. She had no alternative but to sue for peace and the war came to an and on November 11, 1918.

The errans were defeated because they were outnumbered. With the entrance of the United States; her vast power and immense wealth were brought to bear on the war effort. This, coupled with the almost inexhaustible wealth of the British Empire, and the British control of the seas, bought Germany to her knees. The last point was tremendously important, for the blockade slowly brought about the starvation of the Contral Powers. On the other hands, the British N kept the allied supply lines open and secured the transport of troops and the capture of enemy colonies.n the German side, the mistakes which cost her the war were the invasion of Belgium and the unrestricted submarine warfare. The first united Britain in an unremitting opposition, and the second brought about the decisive intervention of the United States.

Questions for next week:

1. Vutline the Peace Settlement of 1919. How far were

the seeds of future unrest sown by this settlement?

2. Explain the machinery or the League of Nations. What

were its weaknesssa !?

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