1969-02-21 — Page 23

教攜?

真三第張六第日五初月正年四己層夏 WAH KIU YAT PO 郭日橋

1969 FUAY

歷史科

(十六)

(HISTORY (16)),

What were the causes of the Crimean War?

The Crimean War in 1854-1856 was the first war between the great powers since the} days of fapoleon. This war, apparently one * of the mast useless and wasteful ever fought. Bross partly from the ambitions of Napoleon IT, partly from Russian policy towards the Turkish Empire and the fears of Great Britado and the other Powera towards the policy?

By the Treaty of Paris, the Black Ses was neutralized, as was the Danube, The Russians. were not to build fleets or fortificatione in the Black Sea, and it was opened to all mer- chant vessels. Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia were to be independent although still under the nominal suzerainty of the Sultan. A clauas also provided that Moldavia and Wallachia were to have separate governmente, and were pro-> hibited from being joined together. Russia was to abandon her claim to the protection of the Christians in the Turkish Empire. JA return, the Sultan promised to carry out reflu Thus the war came to an end.

五期星 日一廿月二年九六九一公年八十五國民華中

華僑華

(排第六張第二頁)

九六九

中学入学定題預

數學科

(十六)

杂卓文•

· ) 6.75 )·(Q) 6-,( R ) 2.75 y

-

After 1841′′ the Czar of Russia, Nicholas I Became increasingly opposed to the existence of the Turkish Empire, and constantly referred to it as "the sick man of Europe" which no amount of doctoring could cure. In 1844 ana again in 1853, he had broached schemes of partition to England England to take Egypt and Crete, and Russia to occupy Constantinople) Atemporarily. The independence of Wallachia.

Moldavia, Bulgaria and Serbia was to be guaranteed by a general European treaty, while the immediata "protectors" of these states was to be Russia. England declined these proposale! as Russia would be the most influential power In the Balkans, and with the control of Constantinople, would dominate the Black Sea and the Eastern Mediterranean. England also suspected that the Turkish Empire was not as weak as Nicholas I made it out to be. It was the general distrust of Russian policy that made what appeared to be an unimportant quarrel develop into a great war.

Hound Jerusalem, there were certain Holy Places, the protection of which had been granted to France by an ancient treaty. But the duty of guarding the Church of Bethlehem and the sacred manger had been neglected by France, and Russia had taken over, repairing the shrines and attending to the Christiant pilgrims. In 1850, however, Louis Napoleon, soon to be Napoleon III, suddenly revived the French claim in order to please the clerical: party at home. In 1853, the Sultan agreed to ti recognize the French claims, Russis naturally * protested against this, and she put forward a further demand that she be given the right to protect all the Christians In the Ottaman Empire. This demand, if granted, would give Russia virtual control of the whole Empire, and enable her to interfere in Turkish affairs almost at will.

At Constantinople, the Britian ambassador, Lord Stratford de Radcliffe, encouraged the Sultan to reject the Russian demands.

But in 1853, Russian troops occupied Wallachia and Moldavia, The Sultan, backed by Lord Radcliffe. demanded that Russia withdraw from these two provinces, and when Russia refused. Turkey declared war.

The attempt to apportion responsibility fo the war had been made many times, with very little success. Everyone involved was to blame. Napoleon III was bent on achieving glory for France, and the French Army; to erase the

The

ve humiliation of 1812; to promote French interest in the Eastern Mediterranean to gain support of the Catholics and to force Nicholas to recognize him as the Emperor of France. Czar of Russia himself was misled into thinking that England would not resort to force, and therefore he pressed his claims on Turkey relentlessly

The war opened with the Britian and French fleets ordered up the Dardanelles as a kind of guarantee, thus breaking the Straite Convention of 1841. This was followed by the Russian victory over the Turkish fleet at Sinope, and this led to a declaration of war by Britain and France. On doing so, the British and French governments had the support of their respective nations, as in both countries, there was a popular sentiment against Nicholas, who was the dost despotic monarch in Europe, who had the Poles and Hungarians of their liberty: British and French peoples were delighted at the prospect of striking a blow against Bicholas.

rived

The early months of the war ́saw the allied armies successfully routing the Russians from Wallachfa and Holdavia. The Russiana withdraw to Sebastopol, a Russian naval base on the Crimean peninsula. The Allies decided to lay

Lege to Sebastopol, which fell only after long months of hárd fighting in the midst of a Bevere,

risean winter, The Allies were hampered" bybu lack of supplies, appelling hospital conditiona at Scutart (which later on improved consider- bly with the arrival of Florence Nightingale sand her hand of nurses) and the shocking

1981ing of their officers and men were led on

muicidal migɛion.

11829, Hienojam 3 dlid and was succeeded By his gen Alexander II, who had never supported WAS FAT, And who was anxious to terminate the

rel to turn his attention to more pressing katters at home, Isgotiations were opened with the 412igs and peace was concluded at Paris in

Describe the events that took place ir China hatween 1911 1031)

On October 10, 1911 army units stationed: in Wuchang rose in mutiny, and demanded that their colonel, Li Yuan-Hung, place himself at their head or be shot. Immediately following this event, revolts broke out in province after.

province, and soon, most of China was in the hande of republican rebels. In December of the same year, delegates from the provinces that had declared themselves independent of the Ching, met at Nanking, proclaimed, s republic and elected Dr. Sun Yat-Sen provi- sional President. Meanwhile, the Prince Regenu had ordered Yuan Shih-Kai to return to active duty and suppress the rebels. But Yuan was an astute politician, and realized that the monarchy was doomed. He did not suppress the rebels, but instead came to terme with them.

In return for the presidency of the new Republic) which Dr. Sun was to relinguish to him, he would persuade the Ch'ing Emperor to abdicate. Sun, in an effort to undite north and south China, and thus avert a civil war, generously acquiesced. In February 1912, the young Ching Emperor abdicated on the advice of Yuan and the latter was made President of the Republic of China. A provisional republican Constitution was proclaimed, A National Assembly was eat up, and it became the leglo- lative authority of the Republic.

At that time Dr. Sun suspected that Yuan had other ambitions, such as reviving tac monarchy, Sun therefore organized the Kuozi.n- tang, or National People' Party, whose membera gained a large majority in the National Assembly. Sun tried to control Yuan through the Assembly, and in 1913 a second revolution took place with the object of romeving Yuan from office. Hezover.

Yuan's amies suppressed this revolution, and Dr. Sun was forced to flee to Japan for e time. Yuan then outlawed the Kuomintang, and-replaced its official with his supporters. He then. declared that he would remain in office for 10 years, then went a step further and announced he would be president for life. He also made known that many people had begged him to restore the monarchy, and in 1915, a carerullÝ chosen group of "advisers" offered him the throne. Yuan accepted and decreed that the Republic would be abandoned and a monarchy. would take ite place instead. In January 1916 Yuan declared himself emperor with the title. Kung Hsien,

But more violent protests broke out against Yuan's restoration of the Monarchy, and revolts spread from Yunnan into-Kwangsi, Kweichow and Szechuan. In the midst of this confusion, Yuan abandoned the Empire, and restored the Republie In March 1916, Three months later he died and Li Yuan-Hung took hía place as President.

hile all these were going on inside Chine. events of great importance had occurred in Europe. In 1914, war had broken out among the European nations, but Yuan had at once declared the neutrality of Chine. For the most part, the Chinese were apathetic to joining a foreign war while the Republic was still struggling in its infancy. But Japan had no desire to lat slip this ideal opportunity to extend her imperialistic ambitions. She

decided to violate China's neutrality, declared war on Germany and attacked the German lease- hold in Shantung and Xiaochów Bay. All rights formerly enjoyed by Germany in Shantung were. declared by Japan to have passed onto her. Early in 1915, Japan also presented China with the Twenty-One Demande, which if granted, would in virtual fact have made China into a Japanese protectorate. The_covaroment of Tuan Shih-Kai

had no one to turn to for assistance, for Britain and France were engaged, in war, and the United States was busy over the sinking of the #Lusitania" by a German U-boat. IE was there- fore inevitable that China should accept the demands, and after some light moderations to render them less odious, Yuan's government agreed to then, But Japan was said to have made an error in polloy as the Damands had the effect of arousing the national spirit of the Chinese. Chinese boycotted Japanese goods and Japanese businesszen in Chins.

After Yuan's death in 1916, he left a large (number of warlords in China, and from 1917 - 1927.

23

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士(本耀逄星期一、三、五刊出)

China was torn by their ambitions and intriguesa They gave little support to the President Li Yuan-Hung, but were inclined to favour nore the dictatorial premier Tuan Chi-Jui, Tuan was in favour of entering the War especially when the United States declared that if China entered on her side, she would provide her with loans, and suspend payment of the Boxer Indemnity. These ters were very attractive, and Tuan wag anxious to enhance his prestige. But most people were not in favour of China joining the war. In

June 1917, there came an attempt at the restora-] tion of the Emperor Hausn Tung, which failed Tuan's forces recaptured Feking, and he was reinstalled as premier with a puppet president Supreme in his power, Tuan declared war on Germany in August 1917. But China could give no military assistance to her allies in her wear state, torn as she was by internal strife, However 200,000 Labourers were sent to dig trenches in Northern France and Mesopotamia.

When the World War ended, China, being on the winning side, was represented at the Peac of Paris. Her delegates were Wellington Koo and C. T. Wang, who spoke for both the govern- ment at Peking and Dr. Sun's administration at Canton. But they were unable to achieve their aims of ending all unequal treaties and the return of Kiaochow Bay. The European Powera supported Japan in her refusal to relinguish all concessions she had gained in Chine, knowing thet otherwise, they too would have to give up their privileges. The Chinese delegates) left the Conference without signing the treaties,

The failure of the Chinese delegates to accomplish their aime aroused an intensely nationalistic movement in China known as they May 4th Movement. This was primarily an anti- Japanese movement in which the young intellec tuals of China took a great part.

Meanwhile Dr. Sun had set up a governmens in Canton in 1917, and this was backed by his National People's Party. There were actually two governments in Chins, ons in Peking which was mostly controlled by warlorda, and Dr. Jun's administration in the south. The foreign, countries were inclined to recognize the northern one as the legal government of China, although Dr. Sun had been elected President by his party in Canton, But China was a divided country, with bazdits roaming, and skirmishea between rival groups were frequent. In 1925, Dr. Sun made an effort to unife north and south, and proceeded to Peking to negotiate with the

isadera in the north, But he died without haring achieved his purpose, and the task of unifying China was left to his follower, a young general by the name of Chiang Kai-Shek. In 1926, Chiang led an army northwards, and captured much of the Yangtze Valley, and suon key cities na Wuchang, Hankow and Shanghad. In 1927, Chiang's forces captured Nanking," and by that time, the Chinese had grom tired of civil strife and were anxious for peace. In 1928, Chiang captured Peking and China became more nearly united then than at any other time previously since the death of Yu In the same year, the Banking regime was recognized as the legal government of Chins and by 1931, the Kuomintang with Chiang at ita. head controlled noat of China,

Questions for next week:•.

Describe avante in Japan between 1853 and 1868. Then explain how the weakness of Tokugawa led to their overthrow.

What were the causes and restilts, cravne Russo-Turkish War of 18777.