1969-02-07 — Page 22

真二張六第二日一廿月二十年申戊歷复

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僑樂

英文中學會港

未試題預習

歷史科

(十四) 16

HISTORY (24)

Describe: Bisnarok's errorts at unuying GermaTY.

The errorts or terman patriots to bring about.

a united vermany by means of the Frankfurt Parliament failed between 1848 and 1849. Yet lessoris had been learnt from the movements. It was clear that Austria would never agree to the idea of a united Germany. Her own position would be

state would not be entirely German, since there would be the addition of Italians, Magyars and Roumanians. If the whole were excluded, she would lose all influence in Germany. If only the German part was admitted, her Empire would be split and would probably collapse altogether. Austria was. bound to keep Germany weak and disunited. It was equally clear that Germany would not be united by parliamentary methods. There were too many German princes who would be against a movement which would de prive them of power. It seemed that the success of German unification lay in the building up of a force. powerful enough to expel Austria when the time came and to crush the opposition of the smaller states. This was exactly shat

in mind. He was the man who united Germany by "blood and iron" instead of by speeches and majority votes,

had

Bismarck had been the russian representative at the restored Diet of the German Confederation in 1851. He soon came to the conclusion that Austria was the enemy of Prussia, Sooner or later, Frussia must fight to expel Austria from the Confederation, if Prussia was to be the leader of Germany. His view was shared by the new King of Prussia, William I, and despite the opposition of the Prussian Assembly (the landtag) Bismarck want ahead with plans to reform the Prussian Army. It was organized by Von Roon and directed by Von Moltke, and in a few years, it became the most efficient fighting machine in Europe, Bismarckis intention was to use it as the instrument to achieve German unity. This was accomplished in three wars, against Denmark, in 1864, against Austria in 1866 and against France in 1870.

The first war was undertaken because Bismarck saw that the questions involved might afterwards. give rise to a quarrel between Frussia and Austria. Further, he wanted the Prussian army to be engaged in a trial war, to see if it was ready for bigger things to come. And further still, if the war was undertaken in conjunction with Austria, he could observe the strength of the Austrian army at close quarters.

The causes of the Danish war were complicated and involved the duchise of Schleswig and Holstein. The last two were members of the German Confederation, but were under the rule of the King. of Denmark as Duke, In 1863, the new King of Denmark attempted to incorporate these two areas. into his Kingdom, but the Germans in both provinces resented the union. Bismarck invited Austria to intervene Jointly on behalf of the Germans in Schleswig and Holstein and war was declared on Denmark in 1864. The result was an easy victory for the German powers and by the Treaty of Gastein in 1865, Denmark relinguished her claim to the two Duchies. Prussia was to rule Schleswig, and Austria was to administer Holstein.

Bismarck now prepared for the coming conflict with Austria by isolating her, a game of displomey at which he was a skilful master, He first gained the neutrality of Napoleon of France by a vague promise of "compensation". He was already friendly With Russia whom he had assisted in the suppression of the Polish Revolt in 1863. He also secured the active cooperation of italy by promising her Venetia, which the Austrians were still holding. Thus prepared, Bismarck picked a quarrel with Austria over the Administration of Holstein, and also proposed, changes in tha Confederation Diet which would have excluded Austria altogether. war broke out in 1866. Prussia invaded Holstein, and the Italians attached in the south. The Prussian army was better trained and

better equipped, and within seven weeks, Austria and those. German states supporting her were defeated. The Treaty of Prague was concluded in the same year Venetia was to be ceded to Italy, and Austria paid only a token indemnity. But the German Confederation of 1815 ceased to exist and in ita place was a new organization, the North German Confederation, under Prussian leadership, from. which Austria was excluded. The new Confederation. extended from the Rhine to Poland, and Prussia annexed Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau and Schleswig- Holstein. The southern German states were left to themselves for the present.

By this time Bismarck realized that a war with. France would be necessary before German unity with the southern states was achieved. France resented the rise of a strong power in Central Europe, and Napoleon hastily asked Bismarck to fulfil his promises of reward for France's neutrality during the Seven Weeks War. Napoleon asked for the Palatinate, Luxemburg and Belgium. By revealing Napoleon's demand for Luxemburg and the Palatinate to the Southern German States, Bismarck turned them

報日僑茶

五期星B七月二年九六九一麽公年八十五國民葘中 育教備劑

against France, by revealing to Britain Napoleon's Cemand for Belgium, he revived the british distrust of hapoleon and ensured British "neutrality in the forthcoming war. He also secured the neutrality of the Russian Czar by pointing out that the latter could seize the opportunity to rebuild his Black Sea Fleet while Europe's attention was diverted. Austria was too recently defeated, and bismarck hed safeguarded against her interference against him by treating her leniently at the Treaty of Prague, Besides, Austria was not likely to help France. who had not helped her in 1866.

Bismarck was ready for the war, and required only a pretext which should present France as the Aggressor, and Prussia the protector of German rights. This came over the question of the Spanish Succession. The proposed candidate for the vacant Spanish throne was a relative of the King of Prussia, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. The French were naturally worried at being

surrounded by Hohenzollerns, and Napoleon sent his embassador to Ems to see the Prussian King, to ask him to pledge he would never support a Hohenzollern. candidate to the Spanish throne. The Prussian King agreed, and the matter should have been dropped. But from Ems sent a telegram to Bismarck in Berlin relting what had happened between the King and the French ambassador. Bismarck decided to publish the telegram in such a form as to suggest that the Eme interview had ended with both the parties

eaneerhed insulted, National passions were aroused and papers in both countries clamoured for war.

bar was actually declared in 1870 and German armies invaded France. Napoleon and his French armies

were defeated, he was overthrown by a revolution in Paris, and the Third French Republic decided to carry on the war. but the Germans laid siege to Paris and after four months of starvation and y Jonbardment the French finally capitulated in 1871

By the Treaty of Frankfurt, 1871, France agreed to the cession of Alsace Lorraine to Germany: to pay a war indemity and to support a Germen army. on her goil until such time as the indemnity was paid. But before the final surrender of Paris, Bismarck had opened negotiations with the south German states for their admission into the North Confederation. An agreement was reached and the German states offered the title of Emperor to King William, In the Falace of Versailles the. German Empire, including the north German Confederation and the states south, was proclaimed, and william I was crowned with sporanr fate pomp as Emperor of Germeny

What were the causes of the Revolution of 1911 in China?

The Manchus, after ruling China for more than two and a half centuries, were overthrown in 1911 E the Chinese republicans. The failure of the various attempts at reform and the growing discontent. of

most of the Chinese people nad supplied the revolutionaries with forces to drive the Manchus away from the imperial throne. The actual outbreak of revolution was brought about by the railway dispute. However, there were many other causes underlying the revolutionary movement. Anta-Manenu sentiment had been in ferment for a long time. In fact, the Chinese had never wholly accepted the Manchus as their rulers, and the latter were fenerally regarded as a conquering alien race. The Chinese could not forget that when the Manchus invaded China, whole cities had been put to the sword. They could not overlook the fact that the Manchus enjoyed certain exclusive privileges, such 83 a different set of civil service examinations, and important posts were reserved for Manchus, that Chinese were treated with something less than equality and fairness, Throughout the period of Manchu rule beginning from 1644, there had been several uprisings against the Ching in an effort to restore China to the Chinese, Among the most, important, and possibly the one that posed the greatest threat to the Dynasty, was the Taiping Rebellion. That this rebellion had failed, waa not due to the vigour of the Dynasty, but rather to. the help given by the foreigners through the Ever Victorious Army.

The decay of Manchu rule was evident in its inefficiency and corruption in administration. Ching officials were not above accepting bribes, and the one who accepted most was probably the Empress Tzu Hai herself. This formidable lady was the real power behind the throne from the death of her husband Hsien Feng onwards, and her contempt for new methods and obstinacy to change was a ne for cause of dissatisfaction to the Chinese. She successfully blocked all attempts at modernization, and she trusted only her favourites even though they had the misfortune of being ignorant and Incapable. She along was responsible for the catastrophe of 1900, which brought upon China a complete hymillation in the eyes of the world. When. she finally bowed to the fact that change was necessary to the survival of the Dynasty, and consented at long last to reforms, it was too late. The Chinese had become too suspicious of the Ching: Government to trust any attempts made at reforms. Inroughout the 19th century, China was continually defeated in foreign wars. She was forced to agree to unequal treaties, to grant concessions; and to pay indemnities, The huge reparations naturally came from the pockets of the common Chinese, whose lives were already made all the more difficult by the dishonest tax collectors, and natural disasters such as floods, droughts, plagues and famines, The Ching government asemed entirely. uncaring about the miseries of the populace, and did little for them in the way of relief. Land was scarce, and production was small due to obsolete. methods of farming. Whatever industry there was had been driven out of being by the foreign goods flooding the markets after the opening of the ports to westerners. By the end of the century, foreign

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maritime customs was in foreign hands, and China was on the verge of dissolution. The Ching government was blamed for all these.

In the latter part of the 19th century, China made several half-hearted attempts at modernization and promising young scholars had been sent a broad to study western political, economic and military. systems. When these returned, they proved to be even more dissatisfied with the conditions in China. Instead of being loyal servants of the Dynasty, they had become thorns in its side, and were openly critical of the government. They longed for a modern China, strong, stable and freed of foreign dominance. These returned students and army officers naturally influenced the thinking of the men under them, and there arose in China a new generation of highly educated and discontented people. Uverseas Chinese yearned for a strong Chira whose diplomacy could protect them abroad, and they were full of admiration for the administrative: systems of their adapted countries They looked forward to the day, when China would be placed in the ranks of the Great Powers, and they gave unstinted support to Dr. Sun Yat Sen.

In 1908, both the Superor Kuang Hsy and tra Kupress Dowager had died within a day of each other The new Emperor Hsuan Tung was a boy of three, and there was a Regent, Prince Chun. The lugent was blindly pro-Manchu, and his nigh-handed actiona drew the indignation of the whole country. The time for revolution seemed to be ripe, and when the dispute over the railways broke out, so did the insurrection.

In May, 1911, the Ching government announced

• plan for the nationalization of the 6000-odd miles of railways in China. Moreover, it declares that it had obtained a loan from the Four-Fewar Banking Consortium of British, American, German and French banking interests to finance the. construction of the Szechuan-Hankow-Kwantung line. The nation protested that Peking was playing into. the hands of foreign creditors. The provinces, who. up to this time had been left free to control the railways, saw their independence being threatened. Immediately," "Railway Protection socistioas sprang up, and fighting broke out between: government troops and local militiamen. In the midst of this confusion, new army units stationed. 10 bucháng rose up in revolution, and kuhan was quickly occupied. Other provinces saw their Opportunity and declared themselves independent the Ching government, by the end of 1911, the ravolution in China was a fact.

Questions for next week:

Trace the career of Dr. Sun Yat San.

What do your understand by the Eastern Quastion! what was the Powers attitude towards this from 1821-18421