1969-01-24 — Page 22

五期星 日四廿月一年九六九一曆公年八十五國民華中

黃育料 品

之意 今

利效配

热的憫迷

--

育教備

|黨窜上亦可見到許多關於工教育的转世, 工業激有近日在香裙會引起許多人注意,在 辦之「香港工業教育」座談會講師全文如下: | 司徒新博士於一月二十三日在泵合醫院無生會保

##4KKERHELISE KU

重要與問題 司徒新博士

實施工業教育的

【億港元用來支付工業所需,先打機免 外匯......模樣計安年一月十一月共镇九十五

品

EHRERIN AS

**£24-BESARK - KHKERES 動,配置新式機器,將人力,物力, 機器設彌,作 【們能減少在生產調控中人力,物力,財力之浪 SENEER ZANKENEK - 低勞力爲萨述二她之主要內來。在庭上,無

ERGONHARTHURYGAN<+{• ** 估計,在六年內開出一九五八年至一九六六年, 【瑞之競爭。近年來,或之工己逐兩煞。」

酒

生產效能看加,雖然工許高漲,亦不足以影响发 例如美國-德,日本,工資為比香港高 - 因 有利於本粥消費市緒,而不至於影响藏品的成本

的對像。 生活與技術人才被俄的管理人才,亦朵工業发育 酒困難,只貝減縮,黃范生可能陷於体时

·施器,改善製造產品的方式,期許品之销售郡選 「育,培業工業所而各人才,及熟悉的使用新式

**

LAKK

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數二第張六第

浩業康人等、蘇位門及重工 倘之海無作工業故

KERA KRAMER M

CUTERTE EROZERS WE C 南之與工間上之區之。五努終方,餓,往務列

野香發力了面及,故因洲

日七初月二十年申戊腦夏·WAH KU YAT PO 報日橘

上方之間資訊港運其工及,僱對而此篇作同,工。

宜才之宜体工徒的:環壓碟

大生一心好下用

等法本數,及一之,

11

無相個工療工音有制

, 辦將以合但者趕,畢,未初果之題。基 中料,對,徒數員 因的久咬

BEEA BALI TARI

「依照「合作著實」方式派往基酸上限以

ETRUETUKAKEEN): (SANDWI 高級人才之培養,她在美風盛行的所說「合作我 COURSES)ECOUNTER-LOK

KONSEHERCHNERED. 拼定,經各級及各离人字計劃之发訴,應製貓

報日僑罩

力克服才獲施行之功效,前我船人漢克,在香港

向等的叢要。..

久然 的故無後的

工牌

發

两貨品優

食品豪料 妾,瑞英‘人關存储

醅施,由於培宮工門有全則,因辦案期工於加引作中人

SIRI BAT A

校菜升有锋成疎所 方取顾一 校為塲費員。學校

1969

會考試題預習

歷史科

(†=) 佑青

(HISTORY (12)

mrts did Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi play the Unification of Italy?

Italy has been disunited since the time of the Roma Empire and it was only in the 1870's that unification was completed under Victor Emmanuel II, When Napoleon was master of Italy, he awakened in the minds of Italians a sense of nationalism. In view of Italy's unity of manners, of language, and of literature, Napoleon strongly believed that she would one day become unified. Italian patriots were thus aware that if Italy were to be saved, nations) unity must be achieved. When the Congress of Vienna (1815) was over, all Italian states, with the exception of Sardinia-Piedmont, were in one way or another under the influence of Austria. Nevertheless the desire for unity grew stronger, particularly in the south. Italian opposition to foreign dominance was shown in the form of organized underground activities such as the Carbonari (or Charcoal Burners) and the Association of Young Italy. The se anti-foreign activities were directed by Italian -- patriots. Together with the efforts of able leaders and competant warriors, they made the unification of Italy a success. Among them, the most cutstanding ware Fazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi, An English poet said of Mazzini as the Soul' of the unification movement, Cavour as its 'Brain'¡ and Garibaldi as its (Sword',

Gieseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), who believed in a republic for Italy, was born in Genoa, and read widely the writings of democratic thinkers. Being considered as a dangerous element, he was arrested in 1830 and banished from his country after hið /, release. Henceforth he committed himself to the struggle for the independence and unity of Italy, His influence on the Italians was profound. Having lost. faith in the Carbonari, he held that the task of Italian: unification should be put on the shoulders of the youth. The Association of Young Italy, a society organized among Italian exiles in Marseilles in 1832, was set up, with students, young professionar men, and youths of the mercantile classes as its chief components. The society came to be an exponent of Italian independence and unity on the one hand, and liberty, equality and humanity on the other. A bridgehead was soon secured in Genoa and from bère, its influence was to spread to northern and central Italy. It was not long before the idea of freedon and unity was felt in every part of Italy. Similar societies, formed on the model of Young Italy, were established in Poland, Germany and Switzerland. Hazsini also exercised tremendous influence through his writings. He wrote many articles and pamphlets, which were smiggled into Italy and were widely read by the people, particularly among the educated class. He stressed the importance of nationality and held that the political divisions in Italy and In Europe were only artificial and therefore should, be remodeled to conform to nationality. However, Mazzini's ultimate aim in his political life did not and at this point. In fact, he regarded national unity as a peceasary means to achieving the general welfare of the human race. With regard to Italy, he favoured a republic as the only form of government desirable for the people. In sum, it may be seen that Mazzini had contributed a great share towards Italian unification by popularising the movement through the Association of Young Italy an through his writings. It remained for Cavour to carry on with the task.

King

took an

Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1801) WELS B Piedmontese nobleman and an abile minister Victor Emmanuel II of Fiedmont, During the uprisings against Austria in 1848, Piedmont · Ictive part, and as a result, Italian patriots lookedj to her ruler as the natural leader of the anification movement, Count Cavour, an advocate of) constitutional government, aimed at securing a constitution for Piedmont.Together with his frienÉS.

Cavour Founded a journal, the II Risorgimento. Hias writings in the journal attracted not only the peop but also the King of Piedmont, A constitution was granted to Piedmont, and Cavour took a seat in parliament elected under its provisions. His prestige increased rapidly and in 1852 he became) Prime Minister of Piedmont. From then until his death in 1861, except for two short intervals, hel held this position and was the virtual ruler of Piedmont. Once he secured power in the kingdom, he) devoted all his efforts towards enhancing the position of Piedmont and achieving the unity of Italy. Reforms and changes were introduced in Piedmont, with the result that Piedmont grew stronger) within a short period of time. However, Cavour was convinced that it was extremely difficult, if not impossible, to expel the Austrians without Foreign

lp. With the aim of securing the help of one of the great powers, Piedmont joined in the Crimean War in 1854, During the course of the peace, conference which)

ended the war, Cavour was able to employ the help of France through the skill of his diplomcy. Cavour's ability as a dipicunt was again shown when? he provoked Austria to declare war on Piedmont in April, 1859. The combined forces of France and Piedmont inflieted serious defeats on the Austrians.] When the Austrians were about to be expelled from Italy, France signed an armistice with Austria at Villafrance without consulting Piedmont beforehand. The terms of the armistice gave. Piedmont the right to annex Lombardy, but Venetia remained in the hands of Austria. Cavour urged Victor Emmanuel to contine the struggle against Austria and when this was turned down he resigned. A few months later he took up the premiership again. Stirred by the firm stand and vigor of Cavour, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Homagna declared union with Piedmont, England, st the same time, favoured the struggle of these Italian states against foreign dominance. France the other hand, insisted that she should be compensated if Piedmont was to have such a large territorial expansion. Accordingly, she was given Savoy and Nice. In Aril, 1860, nearly half the population of the Italian peninsula came under the rule of Victor Emmanuel.

The next step of unifying Italy was continued. by Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) who was a soldier, He was a master of guerilla warfare, a skill which he acquired when he was in exile in South America. In 1847, he returned to Italy to take part in the short-lived Roman republic. Under the pressure, of Francis III of France, Garibaldi fled the country for the second time. Having gained a fortune in New York, be bought the island of Caprera off the coast of Italy, From this island he watched the opposition: to French-rule in Naples, When the time was ripe, he gathered one thousand Rad Shirts and marchad towards Sicily in 1860. After its acquisition, ho continued to Naples where he was unopposed. Naples was then officially annexed by Piedmont, Meanwhile, the Papel States, excepting Rome, were also occupied by Piedmontese troops.

The most important part of the work of y unification was over. With the exception of Venetia and Rome, Italy was now under Victor Emmanuel. The contributions of Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi were indeed tremendous. Mazzini had supplied the Italians with ideas and the spirit for political freedom and unification. Cavour, on the other hand, had helped to squip Piedmont with the necessary prestige and strength to unify the Italian states. Furthermore, his diplomatic skill won for Piedmont the help of the Powers and the trust of the other Italian states. In a word, Cavour supplied Italians with the ways and the means to achieve unity. Garibaldi, though the less important of the three, was responsible for unifying the south to the north. At the end, he refused to accept any honour or reward. With the annexation of Venetia in 1866 and Rome in 1871, the unification of Italy was finally completed. It may be said that without the services of Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi, the completion of Italian unification may be postponed to a later date.

What were the efforts of the Ch'ing Dynasty to introduce reforms in 1905-1911?

Reform Movements in China (1905–1911)

The Empress Dowager, being conservative and anti- foreign in nature, sponsored the Boxer Movement with the hope of expelling all foreigners. The movement turned out to be a disaster for the Manchu Dynasty. Though the Manchu throne was luckily saved at the end of the rising, China was furthermore weakened. In frustration, the Empress was ready to introduce a new line of policy, reforms modelled on Japan. Thus, the years from 1901 to 1911 witnessed a series of reform measures under the initiative of Tzu Hsi. The period of reforms may be divided into three stages. Before 1904, the new policy was announced and a few changes were decreed; from 1904 to 1908, reforms were carried out with more vigour; the years after the death of Tau Hså in 1908 saw the rapid decline of, the reform movement, the growing of dissatisfaction. and the mounting up of revolutionary movements. The first stage of reforms was comparatively less

important than the second stage because little was achieved before 1904. The triumph of Japan over Russia in 1905 provided new drive and impetus to the reform movement in China. After 1905, more vigorous reforms cams. Though most of the reformsTM were not fulfified in actual practice, they had certain bearings on China as a whole.

The Manchus were anxious to build Western- style defence forces, not only to repulse the Westerners, but also to suppress internal rebellions. Here Yuan Shih-K'ái took the lead and built up a

competent and well-disciplined army, the Paiyang Army. However, until 1906, military reforms were carried out by orovincial viceroys and governors, In 1907, the Government ordered them to surrender their military power to the Board of War. These armies were proved later to be no match for the armiss of Westerners, After 1905, plans for s

modern fleet were also

contemplated,

but

little was

achieved. In sum, no efficient fighting forces were set up. Novertheless, there was a significant growth of military spirit in China'

Concerning education, the Government decided that more Western knowledge should be instilled. into the minds of her subjects, China needed at the same time a new gort of officials to meet new problems. This naturally meant a change in the educational system and the examination system.

An elaborate system of education, from the Kinder- garten to the Imperial university, was drawn up. & new set of education regulations and a national Board of Education were also introduced. Though these plans were grandiose on paper, they were difficult to be put into actual practice. The most important change was the abolition of the civil service examinations in 1906. The change in the education system had given missionaries a new status. Many Chinese were sent abroad to study in Japan and the United States. Technical difficulties and obstructions of certain officials had made the aforesaid education- al reforms a failure, Real progress was achieved only in the provinces of Chihli and Hu. Graduates returned from abroad not to serve the Government, but to champion revolutionary movements to overthrow tha. dynasty.

Seeing that nearly all the Western Fowers had" constitutional governments and they were strong, the Empress Dowager also wanted one to be based on that of Japan, though she hardly knew what it was about, An edict of 1906 decreed that a constitutional

government was to rule China, but the supres authority would be kept by the crown. Since the people were not yet equipped with the knowledge, the first move of political reform was to be a reorganization ofthe official system. The introduction of too many Manemis and too many conservatives into the Government obstructed real progress. The same salct. had likewise declared that China was not ready for a parliamentary government, Nevertheless, the "Principles of the Constitution were proclaimed in August, 1908. Provincial assemblies, elected by the scholastic and propertied classes, were established in 1909, They were to elect the National Assembly in 1910, A Parliament was promised for 1917. But when the National Assembly met in 1910, its members urged for an earlier parliamarit. But before the parliament could be called, a revolution brought the Manchu line to an end. In general, the effort at gradual governmental reform failed. The Manchus were not sincere in practising real liberalization. They were willing to try "pomlar" government only if it contributed to the strengthening of the dynasty,

The most successful of the Manchu reforms was the anti-opium programme because, so far as this was concerned, the Government and the people had a common aia. Various usasures, such as the imposing of heavier taxation and the introduction of a Licensing system, were carried out in order to out down the consumption of opium. Banning measures as well as anti-opium pills contributed a part in the programs. The support of missionaries and after- wards the agreement of the British Government to reduce the importation of opium into China helped to check opium-smoking as a habit of a large numbers af Chinese.

legal ar judicial reforms were attempted in Chins with a view to getting rid of extra- territoriality. The pressure for such reforms came from the British, the Americans, and the Japanese who declared that they would surrender their extraterritorial rights when China's legal and

judicial systems were up to standard, Chinese officials were assigned to study Western criminal and civil laws. In 1907, judicial functions were separated from the other governmental activities and] a separate system of courts was established. A new criminal code based on Japanese law was issued in 1911 and was continued in force by Yuan Shin-K1ai after the revolution.

Some efforts were also directed towards the economic field. In general, commerce and industry were fostered by the setting up of factories and commercial laws, Bariks were established to regularize the currency and to give loans to factories. There was also a financial reorganization,

The popularity of the dynasty might be increased if the Government would eliminate the distinction between Manchus and Chinese. The Empress Dowager removed the prohibition on intermarriage between Manchus and Chinese and, in 1907, decreed that tre] pensions of the bannermen were to cease and that they were given individual farmers, To the folly ofi

France Ch'un, the distinction was again defined.

Though the reforms were sponsored by the Government, they came too late to save the dynasty. In fact, the Chinese had always believed that the reforms were carried out half-heartedly and they were only means to strengthan the dynasty, Discontent grew and finally led to the overthrow the dynasty.

Questions for next week:

1. Give a general survey of the Boxer Rising (1900) in

China,

NF1848–1849{fail}

2. Why did revolutionary movement

to unite Germany?,