1968-03-22 — Page 15

But inspite of these repressive measures, Alexander;

22 MAR 1968

自三第四第

日四廿二年申戊熬夏

WAH KIU YAT PO 報

日

1968

歷史科

(-)

・依帆。

History (21)

"Give an account of the reforms of Alexander II.

How can his later rosetionary policy be explained?

Alexander II suoneeded his father Nicholas 1,} that "cornerstone of despotism", in 1855. He was an educated and “enlightened man who was determined to rafara, the conditions of Bussian life. He was got a lábéral, but he was credited with certain reforming intentions. And for one great piece of, reform, Alexander went down in history as the *Cear Liberator", a name which he deserved only during the first few years of his reign. Via reign began at a time when the fortunas of Ruasis were

low abb, when Czardom was disɑaredited by Russia's defeat at the hands of England and Francs in the Crimean War. One of his first acts on his accession to the throne was to bring about the conclusion of that War in 1856, after which he turned his full attention to the problems of Aussta.

at a

He began by granting perdon to those who wan still undergoing punishment for the December Conspiracy of 1825 and the Polish Revolt of 1830. He gave greater freedom to the Press permitted foreign travel and encouraged educatior by removing restrictions an universities and by setting up schools. But the greatest achievement of Alexander, that by which he will ever be remembered, was the Emancipation of the Serfs,

The Edict of Smancipation was issued in 1861. This was brought about not only by humanitarian cans iders tions, but by sheer force of necessity, The new factories could not find sufficient labour unless the serfs were emancipated and thus enabled to nove from the villages to the towns. There were enlightened Russians who realised that no countr which bald half its population as sure chattela could have an honourable and dignified futurs, They had come to realise that serfdom was debasing, for it involved cruelty and ignoranos in the most horrible forse. By the terma of the Edict, the Serfs were set free without having to make any payment directly to their landlords. Each freed sart would receive land, for which they would pay for in installments over a period of forty-nine years, Their former owners were to receive compensation from the government. But the Russian pessant aid o becom & completely fres individualist owner of his land, for he was grouped in village communitisa. He was not free to make any new legal arrangements or resell his land without the agreement of the village councils. Although the status of the peasant was improved, he was not better off financially', and discontent continued.

A second important reform during the reign of Alexander II was the introduction of a form of Local governant. In avery district, an Assemb popularly elected, and known as à Zaustvo, was established, and representativas from the distriat Zamat voa were to form provincial Zamstvos. They ware given powers to control such matters as Ford 'waintenance, education and hospital. In the administration of the law, the judges and mgistrates were zåde independent of the other departments of the government, equality of all Russians before the law was recognized, court cases were now tried in public and trial by jury was introduced. A number of important changes were made in the Russian Army in 1874, when all classeı were declared liable to military service, but the tera of service was reduced from 25 to 15 years.

II was hunted relentlessly by terrorista, and they it last succeeded in assassinating him in the streets of St. Petersburg in 1881.

what was the importance of Africa to the Creat !ower after 18707 How did this affect internas žoga 2 relations 7

By the latter half of the 14th Century, Important economic changes in Europe had begun to influence the policies of European countries. Improvements made in methods of manufacture whica resulted from the Industrial Revolution had produced a surplus of goods. Markets were difficult to find in Europa itself, as competition among the Industrial countries was keen. The producing pountries had to seek more overseas markets to dump their surpluses in order to profit. Also sources of raw materiais must be secured to provide, for the machines back home. At the same time, improvements in science and medicine had lowered the death rate, raised the birth rate and lengthened. man'a spar of life, thus the population was expanding. New homes had to be found to accomodinoe the surplus population. Thousands of emigracke annually left their homes in Europe to find elsewhere better means of subsistence, cheap lano, abancas for batter employment, and so forth. Naturally, their home governmanta disliked to lose so many subjects whose taxes might enrich the national treasury. The best answer to these three problems was to establish coloniss over which the mother country could have political and economic control.

Travel and communications had speeded up, and more and more unknown places were being discovered. These new discoveries fired the imaginations of a whole new generation of explorers, who were scon followed to the new lands by missionarias, tradere and settlers. Much of the activity of the above people were directed at Harkest Africs, which was largely unappropriated and offered the greateer potent A

From 1850rds, the Length

breadth of Africa was pharted, settled and divided among the European countries. This expansion and competition was for the most part, peace and friendly, until there was scarcely any territory left to share among the Great Powers. When this point was reached disputes inevitably arose among the Powers.

In 1870, only a few patches on the coastline of Afrios were European. England had siezed Cape Colony from the Dutch during the Napoleonic wars, and British money Ênd diplomacy had obtained for her the control of the Suez Canal in 1875. By 1881 England bad set up á virtual protectorate over Egypt, but France had not given up her ambitiona in that direction. She was able to compensate for the loss of her interesta in Egypt by taking over Tunis in 1881. But this action had the unfortunate

Vagreed to recogn

the Britiun occupation of Egypt. Secondly, tingland agreed not to oppose French policy in Morocco. AS SOOD & B this Anglo- French agreement became known, Germany objected and demanded that an international conference be held to settle the status of Morocco, The Kaiser even paid a visit to Tangier, where in a speech zu vowed to protect the fridè pendence of Ma occo. In 1906, the Algeciras Conference was duly held, but the Kajoer was defeated in his purpose, as France and England, supported by Russia, held firm

NG K

Ist, sound as many of these reforma ware, they did not go for to cure the 111s of Russia Alexander was still an autocrat, and his policy was "thus far, and no farther," He was not prepared to surrender his powers to the people, and there was

• lack of real freedom. His reforms met with opposition from the older civil servanta and bureaucrata and from the landlords, the last of which never forgave him for his liberation of ti

serfs, while the sarfs themselves were dissatisfied with the new economic burdens placed on them,

In the latter part of his reign, Alexarder II. became definitely reactionary, on account of the Polish Revolt (1863) and the revolutionary, violence which dissatisfaction with his half measures had prodúced. In the former case, the Poles bad been encouraged by the defeat of Russia in the Crimean

•ỷ by the success of Italy in throwing off the Austrian yoke, and the hopelessness of gaining from the Czar the coveted Lithuania and Ukraine. The False hoped for independence, but sa în 1830, their} dande was doomed to failure from the beginning. They had no organised army and no" source of supplies, and within a year of its outbreak, the revolt was erushed with great savority. It was followed by the acuplete incorporation of Poland in the Russian

re, and the central government was transferred i to St. Petersburg itself.

Revolutionary võlemas in Buweżą took the Corr of Hinilisan. The ideas of the Mihilists were destructive They declared that societing institutions, political, social and religions, should be swept away and that a new organisation of, sosiaty should be sat up. Such ideas meant that they had declared war upon all the traditions of Russia, and especially upon the Czar himself and the Russian Orthodox Church. They resorted to terrorism, and made several attempts on the life of the Caar. The result we that Alexander turnéd on severe repressive measures. As the Nihiliste vore mostly composed of young educated men from the äniversitías, Alexander restricted entrance to uORE, ššriát censorship of the press was re-imposed. Increasing numbers of arrests, imprisonmanīta and

Llas' to Siberia mrked the later years of the

of Alexander II. The secret poliée becam

-brutal in their thods of torture.

五期路

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11968 中學入學試試題預習專欄

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LIBPTRIES

But Germany had no intention of seeing Morocca being swallowed up by France, and in 1911, a second] crisis over Morocco almost led to a general Suropean War. In that year a revolution in Moroca bad caused the Sultan to ask for frenab help and

• French Army had been despatched. The Kaisem raised the e objection that this was not in with the ⚫greements drawn up at sigeciras in When the French Army occupied, the Kôrodeko capital, Germany Lane ©iately at the gunboat the #Panther" to Ageäir to protest German "interest a

there. England took a very serious view of the action by Germany and practically threatened har with war. The result was that-Germaný, as yet not Tully prepared, withdrew, and for the present, at Laast, the tension had been eased.

The list of posmra interested in North Africa' also included italy.. Tharted in her attempt to gain Tumis in 1881 she had plamed to absorb Abyssinia. She was successful in securing Eritres in 1885 and, the Italian Somaliland in 1892, but the Italian gay waa nopalessly defeated by the Abyss lalana at Adowa In 1896. The Italians then developed ambitions in Tripgli. It did not matte that Tripoli wan a worthless stretch of desert; to the Italians, and indeed to all European countries, then, a colony, however worthless, constituted an Empire, and empires were antters of honour to them. Taking advantage of the Moroacen Crisis of 1911 Italy declared war on Turkey, and overran Trisoli within a year. This incident shoo

соще

the Triple Alliance considerably, as Germany had to regard Tripoli-ao a suitable acquisition for herself. And Italy had attacked Turkey, * centrs of German patronage and commercial development. This served to weaken the Triple Alliance. Thus the African question had several nearly caused war among the beropean countries, Although war, had been averted so far, yet the European countries' were hastily preparing for vir day when diplomcy «ions could no longer settle their difference, and force. was the only answer

Questions for next week: {

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1. Describe the circumstances that led to the formation

of the Alliances in Europe between 1870 to 1907.

2. What attempts were made to prevent war and improv

internātāonal relations before 1914?

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result of driving Italy into the arms of Germany

in 1882, as Italy also wanted Tunda.

In 1898 occurred a dangerous incident at / Fashod in the Sudan, when British and French soldiers faced each other for several weeks with great tension, during which the possibility of was was voiced by both governments. Eventually wag waa averted, when the French retired,

Until the 1880's, Bismarck was uninterested in acquiring colonies for Germany. He was anxious to avoid involving Germany into quarrels with European states. But Gernan businessmen pressuree him, and he therefore tried to secure a peaceful division of Africa. For this purpose he called a conference at Berlin in 1884 by which the Powers agreed on their particular "spheres of influence. Germany herself plunged into the colonial race, and in 1864, she acquired in quină succession Southwest Africa, Togoland, Tanganyika and Germa East Africa,

But as the century wore on, this friendly, competition among the European Powers gradually turned into the bitterest rivalry. In 1899, var broke out in South Africa between the Engliap and the Boars. The Kajaur sent a congratulátory telegram to President Kruger of the Boers for having repulsed the Jamsson, Raid. This telegram implied, that Germany was prepared to give aid to tř Boers against England in South Africa. This jincident made" Britain realize that the s

practically without allies in Europe, and she mu gradually turn from her "splendid isolation" to seek friends. The Kaiser's policies, had alienated English friendship, and she strove towards a better understanding with France. In 1904, through the Entente Cordiale, the two countries came to an agreement over Morocco and Egypt. Firstl

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