1968-01-19 — Page 21

1968

19 JAN 1968

類 HALL貫一第張大第

日十二月二十年未丁眉器

英文中學會 會試題預習專欄

歷史科 (十二

依帆

History (12)

Why did attempts to unify Italy before 1860

Metternion once referred to Italy as 6 geographical expression," But the peninsula of Italy, though at different times under Spanish, French, Austria or German rule, never lost sight of) the fact that the population was Italian. This sense of nationality was fostered by a commen language and religion and by the recollection of the past greatness of the Roman Empire. In the time of Napoleon, Italy had come under the influence of French ideas, and the nationalism born of this. period was accompanied by a batred of foreign domination. At Viema, the old divisions were restored, and most of the former rulers re-instated, The hopes of the Italians for a single government for all of Italy vere dashed to the ground. For the next forty-five years, there were five political divisions in Italy. In the south, Ferdinand, the Spanish Bourbon, vas restored in Naples and Sicily, with all the accompanying corruption in administra- tion. North of the Kingdon of Two Sicilies lay the Papal States, under the Pope, where corruption, oppression and incompetence prevailed. To the vest and north of the Papal States lay the three Central' Bachiss, Parma, Modena and Tuscany, under Hapsburg princes, All of them were better governed than the Tvo Sicilies or the Papal States, but the administration, though efficient, was autocratic, And the rulers, though well disposed towards the welfare of their subjects, were tainted with one unforgivable sin – they were Austrians, Lombardy and Venetia were sections directly incorporated into the Austrian Empire, Bere the iron rule of Metternich prevailed, and a very efficient spy system, censorship and supervision squashed all- freedom of political activity. Finally, there was Piedmont and Sardínia, In 1815, ita reactionary King Victor Emmanuel I had been restored, but in course of

it vas upon this Kingdom that the

Ttaliana potrated their hopes. It had one great

merit - its King was an Italian.

The Italian patriots in the 19th century many problems. They had to establish a single constitutional government in a land of many petty states, in all of which was absolute government. Italian rulere would naturally oppose any movement that would involve a surrender of their powers. And even if they succeeded in this aim, there was still the power of Austria and the power of the Pope to reckon with. Austria was immensely strong, and controlled many states either directly or indirect The Pope had behind him the support of noverfol: Catholic Austria, and any attempt to undermine bio |_muthority would be greeted vi thematagonian by ali

finsurmountable

te could only resort such as the Carbonari ... aples, but soon spread

y. It was not well organized. the task of achieving Italian unito. Bat the society fostered the spirit among the common men. In 1820, the poupari organized revolta in Naples and Piedmont. In both states they were for a time successful, and constitutions were granted. But in 1821, Austrian troops intervened on behalf of the monarchy, and any rights granted during the brief period of revolution were soon withdrawn. In 1830, during the wave of revolutions that wept Europe. there were considerable uprisings in Italy. The rulers of Parma and Modena vere expelled, and the Papal States broke out into rebellion. The Pope promptly appealed to Austria for help, and the rebellion vas crushed. The Italians for a time hoped for French support, but Louis Philippe was unwi 11äng to risk his new crown in a contest with Austria.

It had become clear.

that unconcerted ess to the Italians by this time

by the Carbonari to fomant

sporadic rebellions would fail to unite Italy. Austria was too strong, and her intervention in 1821 and 1830 had crushed their efforts. Something else was needed a more hational movement and sounder leadership. The former was supplied by Mazzini who inspired in his fellow countrymen a passionate longing to be united. He founded a new society - Young Italy, whose great aim was the expulsion of Austrians from the Peninsula, This would be followed by the collapse of governments supported by Austria, and clear the way for the establishment of a republic. Another writer, Gioberti, advocated the expulsion of the foreigners, and the federation of the existing atates under the presidency of the Pope. Other vriters suggested the annexation of the Italian states to Piedmont - Sardinia By virtue of its being the only state with a native Italian ruler. Thus between the years 1830 and 1848, the different views of different people kept Italy divided.

But hope for Italian unity was revived in 1846 when Pius II became the new Pope, Pins was believed

to have liberal sympat ber

and his first acts as Popa certainly seemed to prove him so. Ho released political prisoners in his states, modified the censorship of the press and introduced several "reforms, His example was followed by other Italian

atates. In Piedmont, censorship of the press was

abolished and a constitution promulgated, and y

Naples, Ferdinand II was forced to grant a constitution, The hopes of the Italians rose to dissying heights, and Liberals looked forward to great union of Italy under the Pope.

Main 1848, the Austrian Empire was embroiled in revolutions, and Italians felt the time had arrivgå to strike while Austria vas weakened. In Sicily, Ferdinand II's garrizon was expelled, Charles Albers

WAH KIU YAT PO

E

#

of Predmont-Sardinia declared war on Austria and promptly invaded Lombardy to liberats the Lombards, Venice elas rose and expelled the Austrians. From Naples, the new government sent a force to asaist

Charles Albert, but Pius IX disappointed the Italiana' when he denounced the war and refused to help. This vas quite understandable, as a Pope would hesitate to fight against a major Catholic power like Anatria, In 1849, after the murder of the Pope's minister Rossi, o republic was declared, and Mazzini hures to Rome to take charge of the Toman Republic. But the Pope appealed to the uropean powers for help, And Napoleon III of France sent an army to suppressi the Republie and re-inst to the Pope. Other states were not faring well either. Charles Albert vas defeated by the Austrian forces at Custozza and Bovara, and the Austrians recovered Lombardy. In Sicily, King Ferdinand had taken advantage of the chaos caused by inexperienced Liberal Ministers and had recovered his authority. By August 1849, even Venice had succumbed under the continuona bombardment of the Austrian forces. The triumph of despotism vas complete - Naples, Sicily, Rome, Venice, Lombardy had all rebelled and failed. Italian unity had pot baen achieved in 1848.

and

The struggles for Italian unity failed because or lack of agreement among the leaders, Mazzini proposed a republic of Italy which did not appeal; to all the Italiana. Gioberti'a suggestion of an Italian federation under the Pope was open to objection because the Pope's government was among the worse in Italy. And even when there seemed to be a capable Pope in Pius IX, yet he was credited with more than his share of liberal sympathies. He was not ready to go further than the first few changes he had made, when his people demanded more, he drew back in terror. It was true that in 1948, Austria was- weakened by internal revolution, but she recovered vithin the year, and her authority was entrenched in double firmness, French intervention in Rome also crashed the hopes of the liberale. Neither Hazzini nor Charles Albert were great military leaders, although each had contributed a great shares In later years, the task of unifying Italy fell Into the hands of Cavour the statesman and Garibaldi the soldier

2. What attempts were made by the Ching Dynasty.

arry out reforms in China between 1905-19112

In 1901, the Allied forces left Peking after the Bozer disturbances had been quelled, and the Empress Dowager and her court returned. She had at last. bowed to the fact that change was an absolute necessity, and she issued an edict in the name of the puppet Emperor Kuang Ren. This edict announced that the time for reform.had come. This desire for change was strengthened after the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 when Japan - an Asiatic power much smaller than China - defeated the giant of Russia. The Japanese had shown what a country bent on modernization could achieve, and the Chinese. determined to follow her example. There was the added fear that if Ch

China tinued to: weaken,

she would be partitioned by the ordign powers.

The most obvious, nesessity - made apparent by both foreign aggression, and internal unrest - was the strengthening of China's military forces, The new Pet Tang Army was increased to thirty-six divisions, and under the command of Yuan Shik-Kai,| six divisions were actually organized, 4 Board of War was set up in 1907 to control all the military forces. Young officers were now sent to Japan for training instead of to Germany, sa Japan had proved herself worthy to be military instructors in 1905.

Economic development followed. In 1896, Japan had gained the privilege of setting up factories in China nsing cheap Chinese labour and raw materials. Other European countries

manufacturers, realiti ad followed suit. Chinese

this was fucrative business, also began setting up silk, cotton and flour mille. From 1903 to 1908, these factories mushroomed all over China and a Miniatry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce vas set up, A

t of commercial and company law was drawn up.. Banks were founded to regularize the currency and to float loans to manufacturers. Graduates from foreign technical colleges were granted degrees and given jobs in the new industries,

Dev 18

There were also videspread social changes, particularly on the legal systems. In 1899, Japan had gained control over foreigners in her country, and China decided to modernize her pensl system so that foreigners would relinguish their extra- territorial rights, Western legal systems were studied and an attempt was made to end the corruption of magistrates. Torture and various forms of cruel punishment, such as death by alicing for such crimes as high treason, were abolished. A new criminal code based on that of Japan vas set up in 1911. Opium smoking was suppressed, and between the years of 1906-1911, there was a marked decream! in the amount of opium moked. But the suppression of this drug also had its disadvantages. It deprived the Ching government of a valuable

source

of income from the import duties of the drug at a time when China was still paying off indemnities to foreign powers,

There were other social reforms. The division between Manchu and Chinese was removed, and intermarriage between the two races was allowed. Footbinding and alavery were abolished,

In education, great progress vas also made, iD

1905, the ancient system of the civil examinations was totally abolished, Plans for an elaborate system of schools, from Kindergarten to university, vere drawn up in 1904. All schools were to be controlled by a Board of Education, Western subjects, such as mathematics and other branches of science, were taught although Chinese classical learning was not

'forgotten. Because of the changes use education,j ̈

the missionary schools gained nev s

and many

rich families sent their sons and daughters to be educated in these schools. Young men of ability were} sent abroad to study at government Expense. After

五期星

的精制,敬學方法等易適當食控內苦。(南》

·展望一九六八年香港

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亦籌設中文大學

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而此間的艱校高中畢業生,受到出或韶造影响。

年深造的安精,擁有靈擺交過及馬來亞大學芝得者始可出水學,致而言,裏面

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104

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.面可以解决常帥學額的嚴爾熱泛,減輕皮

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每個會或食货,點在一

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,合力設立一個

·立一盤計劃,蔕多職業技藝訓謝學校

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對樂中學習守秧良好感性的必要,

艾街坊會應有芝一批社會工作人員 高中國募上孝生参加受調於ず FRESKONE - ERFOULES

甚至添加或帮助政府就说些路的工作。

YEKEZO 香港青年問題

會,球数而走險,自品自。 在的刺激時,前可能撈發出來,或反抗武 KRAUZERKE-EXERRIKS

·舞,而有些問題或病態存在。如果他們得 上或淸结上基成多或少並非完全融全和平 捕之,今日的青年,在精稗上,心理

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·此正解决問的熱法盐正本清源,

1905, many were sent to Japan, and in 1908, zne

食

United States decided to remit a portion of her share of the Boxer Indemnity as scholarships for Chinese students. Later, returned foreign students filled certain government offices that had hitherto) been occupied only by Manchus,

Reforms were also made in the government, In 1905, the constitutional government of Japan had defeated the despotic government of Russia, China decided that there must be some benefit from a constitutional system in which the throne was still" powerful. She decided to copy the example set by Japan, In 1906, an edict was issued which declared that the throne was still absolute in its power, and retained control of the armed forces and foreign affairs, with full legislative powers. But malters of policy ought to be considered by some sort of popular assembly. But at the same time, this edict declared that Cbina was tot ready for parliamentary) government. However a Constitution was duly announced in 1908, Provincial assemblies, elected by the scholastic and propertied classea, were set up. in 1909. These provincial assemblies were to elect the National assembly in 1910. A Parliament was promised for 1917. But when the National Assembly met in 1910, its members, half of whom were appainted by the throne, demanded an earlier parliament. But before the parliament could be called, a revolution had overthrown the entire system.

Although the Empresa Dowager herself had initialed these reforms, and they were pursued with Bome vigour, yet they had come too late to satisfy a discontented nation. The country regarded them as insincere efforts on the part of the government. In truth, the Empress Dowager had carried them out not to give the people any more privilege in the government of their country, but rather, it was an attempt to strengthen the dynasty. But the young men trained abroad turned out to be ita severest rather than its most loyal servants, and ontics. vere ontspoken in their condemnation of the Ching dynasty. Many of them were convinced that no real strengthening of China could take place until the Ching bad been overthrown, They became revolution-1 aries, and joined Dr. Sun Yat-Sen's movement to, depose the Chiar,

Questions for next weaki

1. What parta did Massini, Cavour and Garibaldi play)

in the Unification of Italy?

Was the railway dispute the only cause leading the Revolution of 19117