RELIGIOUS RESPONSE TO MODERNIZATION IN TAIWAN: THE CASE OF I-KUAN TAO
57
significant innovations. These innovations, too, reflect the changing conditions of the present time.
New responses to cultural contact; universalism
One important element in the interpretation of the present time, as we have seen above, is not merely the rejection of Western influences. Indeed, the impact of Western civilization, whether militarily, economically, or intellectually, can be regarded as the driving force for change and modernization in the last 150 years. The religious interpretation of the modern situation cannot avoid facing this Western civilization and assigning it its proper place in the religious interpretation of reality.
Rejection of the West, even open hostility, has been the most common reaction since the last century. Not only conservative politicians had a heavy aversion to Western civilization; lower strata of society also shared this loathing. The second half of the last century is full of more or less serious incidents caused by the latent aggression of the Chinese population towards the foreign culture and its representatives. The Boxer uprising of 1900 has sometimes been seen as the culmination of this series of encroachments.
Popular opposition, not only to the Western powers but also to the foreign rule of the Manchu dynasty, often organized itself in secret societies with a more or less religious coloration. The religious character of many of these groups should not be overestimated since, in traditional China, religious elements diffused into most social institutions, irrespective of their primary objectives. On the other hand, there were groups belonging to the popular religious tradition which occasionally developed strong political, especially nationalist, impulses. As to the anti-Western attitude, a further religious component was added since Western civilization was represented, not least, by Christian missionaries. To fight Western influences, therefore, also meant to fight Christianity. Indeed, Chinese Christians were not seldom regarded as foreign agents, and the fact of their Christianity was seen by many as an obvious sign of their having abandoned the traditional Chinese culture.
At first sight, it seems that the criticism of Western influences, which is common among today's fu-luan cults and I-kuan Tao groups, is but a continuation of the anti-Western attitude of popular religious groups in the last century. It would then be just another symptom of the above-mentioned cultural traditionalism. But this is only part of the picture. For if we look closer, we find that opposition to Western
RELIGIOUS RESPONSE TU MODERNIZATION IN TAIWAN THE CASE OF I-KUAN TAO
57
significant innovations. These innovations, too, reflect the changing conditions of the present time.
New responses to cultural contact; universalism
One important element in the interpretation of the present time, as we have seen above, is the rejection of Western influences. Indeed, the impact of Western civilization, whether militarily, economically or intellectually, can be regarded as the driving force for change and modernization in the last 150 years. The religious interpretation of the modern situation cannot avoid facing this Western civilization and assigning it its proper place in the religious interpretation of reality.
Rejection of the West, even open hostility, has been the most common reaction since the last century. Not only conservative politicians had a heavy aversion to the Western civilization, lower strata of society also shared this loathing. The second half of the last century is full of more or less serious incidents caused by the latent aggression of the Chinese population towards the foreign culture and its representatives, The Boxer uprising of 1900 has sometimes been seen as the culmination of this series of encroachments.
Popular opposition, not only to the Western powers but also to the foreign rule of the Manchu dynasty, often organized itself in secret societies with a more or less religious coloration. The religious character of many of these groups should not be overestimated since in traditional China religious elements diffused in most social institutions irrespective of their primary objectives. On the other hand there were groups belonging to the popular religious tradition which occasionally developed strong political, esp. nationalist impulses. As to the anti- Western attitude, a further religious component was added since Western civilization was represented not least by Christian missionaries. To fight Western influences; therefore, also meant to fight Christianity. Indeed, Chinese Christians not seldom were regarded as foreign agents, and the fact of their Christianity was seen by many as an obvious sign of their having abandoned the traditional Chinese culture.
F
At first sight it seems that the criticism of Western influences which is common among today's fu-luan cults and I-kuan Tao groups is but a continuation of the anti-Western attitude of popular religious groups in the last century. It would then be just another symptom of the above mentioned cultural traditionalism. But this is only part of the picture. For if we look closer, we find that opposition to Western
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