STUDY OF MODERNIZATION IN CHINA & JAPAN
21
vernment was, in Perkins' words, "an almost unbelievably weak [financial] instrument."
Even if the Ch'ing government had been moved to undertake more fundamental military reform, China's transition to modernity would have been painful; but without such reform, it was virtually impossible.
NOTES
1 Paul Cohen, Between Tradition and Modernity: Wang Tao and Reform in Late Ch'ing China (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), 4.
2 Ibid.; see also 148-149.
3 Thomas Kennedy, "Self-Strengthening: An Analysis Based on Some Recent Writings,” Ching-shih wen-t'i, 3.1 (November, 1974), 27.
4 Cohen, 149.
5 Quoted in S. Y. Teng and John K. Fairbank, eds., China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey 1839-1923 (New York, 1966), 109.
6 See, for example, William Lockwood, "Japan's Response to the West: The Contrast With China," World Politics, 9.1 (October, 1956); Marion Levy, "Contrasting Factors in the Modernization of China and Japan," Economic Development and Cultural Change, 2 (October, 1953); Marion Levy, "Some Structural Problems of Modernization and High Modernization: China and Japan," Proceedings of the Symposium on Economic and Social Problems of the Far East (1962); Allan Cole, "Contrasting Modernization in China and Japan," Ch'ung-chi hsieh-pao, 4.2 (May, 1965); E.O. Reischauer, “Modernization in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan," Japan Quarterly, 10.3 (July-September, 1963), etc. A partial exception is the fine article by John K. Fairbank, et al., entitled "The Influence of Modern Western Science and Technology on Japan and China," Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, 7 (1954).
7 Two of the most obvious advantages were, of course, Japan's greater and more immediate awareness of the Western military challenge (a product of geography and historical timing), and the military orientation and ethos (bushido) of the Japanese elite, as compared to the civil orientation and ethos (wen-te) of the Chinese elite. Other factors were also important, including the absence of opium smoking among Japanese officers and the rank and file, which again contrasts so markedly with the case in China. See Jonathan Spence, "Opium Smoking in Ch'ing China," in Frederic Wakeman, Jr., and Carolyn Grant, eds., Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1975).
8 See Fairbank, et al., "The Influence," 192-194, esp. 193.
9 Ernst Presseisen, Before Aggression: Europeans Prepare the Japanese Army (Tucson, 1955), 139.
10 See Richard J. Smith, Ward, Gordon and the Ever-Victorious Army: Foreign Assistance and Military Modernization in Nineteenth Century China (manuscript).
STUDY OF MODERNIZATION IN CHINA & JAPAN
21
vernment was, in Perkins' words, "an almost unbelievably weak {financial] instrument."
Even if the Ch'ing government had been moved to undertake more fundamental military reform, China's transition to modernity would have been painful; but without such reform, it was virtually impossible.
NOTES
1 Paul Cohen, Between Tradition and Modernity: Wang Tao and Reform in Late Ch'ing China (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), 4.
2 Ibid.; see also 148 - 149,
3 Thomas Kennedy, "Self-Strengthening: An Analysis Based on Some Recent Writings,” Ching-shih wen-ri, 3.1 (November, 1974), 27.
4 Cohen, 149.
5 Quoted in S. Y. Teng and John K. Fairbank, eds., China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey 1839 - 1923 (New York, 1966), 109.
6 See, for example, William Lockwood, "Japan's Response to the West: The Contrast With China," World Politics, 9.1 (October, 1956); Marion Levy, "Contrasting Factors in the Modernization of China and Japan," Economic Development and Cultural Change, 2 (October, 1953); Marion Levy, "Some Structural Problems of Modernization and High Modernization': China and Japan," Proceedings of the Symposium on Economic and Social Problems of the Far East (1962); Allan Cole, "Con trasting Modernization in China and Japan," Ch'ung-chỉ hsieh-pao, 4.2 (May, 1965); E.O. Reischauer, “Modernization in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan," Japan Quarterly, 10.3 (July-September, 1963), etc. A partial exception is the fine article by John K. Fairbank, et. al., entitled "The Influence of Modern Western Science and Technology on Japan and China," Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, 7 (1954).
7 Two of the most obvious advantages were, of course, Japan's greater and more immediate awareness of the Western military challenge (a product of geography and historical timing), and the military orientation and ethos (bushido) of the Japanese elite, as compared to the civil orientation and ethos (wen-te) of the Chinese elite. Other factors were also important, including the absence of opium smoking among Japanese officers and the rank and file, which again contrasts so markedly with the case in China. See Jonathan Spence, "Opium Smoking in Ch'ing China," in Frederic Wakeman, Jr., and Carolyn Grant, eds., Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1975),
8 See Fairbank, et. al., "The Influence," 192-194, esp. 193.
9 Ernst Presseisen, Before Aggression: Europeans Prepare the Japanese Army (Tucson, 1955), 139.
10 See Richard J. Smith, Ward, Gordon and the Ever-Victorious Army: Foreign Assistance and Military Modernization in Nineteenth Century China (manuscript).
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