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1985
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HISTORY (2
VIOLA WONG YUK-YUE .
MILL & DALE PRESS LTD.
In this and a few coming issues, we'lI.. discuss the origins or causes of the First World War (1914-1918).. Either you say the
First World war or you say World War I (without 'the'). The importance of the war is that for centuries before 1914. wars were fought between kings, emperors, nobles and so
on without
involving the majority of the masses, the common people. In the First World War, however, adult male citizens were conscripted to serve as soldiers (ie. called upon by the government to fight for the fatherland). And massive bombing' and
killing of comcion people occurred. In the past, wars were fought by professional soldiers, and there were not many of them. Now every adult. male citizen was required by law to do the fight- ing. And millions instead of thousands of them were wounded or killed. It is because of this that historians often call the First World War the first
total war' in history, It was total because all people were either directly or indirectly involved..
CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1918)
The causes of the First World War (1914- 1918) were of 2 kinds: underlying and immediate. 1. Immediate causes
You will learn later that the great powers (Germany, Austria, Britain, France, and Russia) each took some steps or simply did something in the summer of 1914. In
the end these steps or
what the great powers. did led up to
the outbreak of a world war. So each of the great powers shared sone RESPONSIBILITIES for causing the war. By immediate causes. we mean these
responsibilities1
No great power deliberately planned the war. However, each of the great powers reacted to one another's strong policies with stronger ones. This led to the world war. So no great power was alone responsible for the outbreak of the war. Underlying causes Historians tuink that the great powers: took the steps in 1914 because they were influenced by some long-term historical forces well before 1914,
such as militarism,
nationalism,
colonialism and so
.un
These forces affected
the great powers
different
alike ees
In trying
give
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more thorough ar deeper explanations for the First World War, bistorians look at the conditions of Europe before 1914.
These forces and
conditions were the
underlying Causes
ag
follows:
a.The Alliance System-
An alliance was
a
military agreement
whereby members: promised to help each other militarily when attacked by another country. In 1871- 1914, the European great powers made
a number of alliances or
ententes (non- military agreements. of friendliness) with each other. In the end they all became members in one of the two opposing alliance campa: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria & Italy) against the Triple Entente (Britain, France & Russia). This was the
Alliance System. At first, an alliance was a way of self. defence. It was, used to frighten off a country who might start
offensive wars. Starting from the late 1900s, however, Germany and Austria used their alliance to take offensive actions, ie. to. support a strong or aggressive foreign policy against other countries. Just as when a. country had allies other countries dared not attack her, at the same time when a country had allies she might become braver to struggle for power, knowing that her allies would come to her help when necessary. We shall learn about the Alliance System in detail later. b.Militarism - This has a number of meanings. Governments, made military prepara- tions for war (weapons, army, navy, etc); people urged their
governments to make war on other
countries; military
leaders had strong influence on a government's
policies. We shall see how all this happened in Europe in the period
1-1914. Then we shall see that in 1914 decisions for war were often supported or even made by military leaders. c.Nationalism This means patriotism, or love for one's own country. We shall see that because of nationa- lism (or intense. nationalism)
European leaders decided to make war on each other in 1914-1918.
-
d. Imperialisa
This refers to the race for acquiring
colonies and other
imperial benefits
in Africa, East
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Asia and other
places among the European great powers. Not a
single War started between two great
powers in the process of imperialism, but great-power
relations were
badly affected when the great povers struggled for imperialist interests. This made it more and more difficult for
a peaceful settle- ment of an international crisis (ie, ka quarrel between the great powers), One of these crises, which the great powers failed to settle peacefully, led to the First World War in 1914
in the end. e.Economic changes In 1871-1914 the European economy was changing:
rapidly. In particular, Germany was. industrializing: successfully and rapidly in competition with Britain, We shall learn what the changes were and how they led up to the war.
THE ALLIANCE SYSTEM, 1871-1914.
A. Dual Alliance 1879.
Between Germany and Austria. However, Germany kept good relation with Russia. Britain remained in isolation from European alliances. This was according to the traditional British policy of "Splendid Isolation".. France was in this way diplomatically isolated. Bismarck of Germany wanted to isolate France⠀ so that France could not revenge on her defeat by Germany. in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. In the Duel Alliance, Germany promised military help. for Austria if Austria was attacked by Russia, If France attacked Germany, then Austria would remain beutral and prevent other power (e.E.
Russia) from helping France.
B. Triple Alliance 1882-
In that year, Italy joined the Dual Alliance.
C. Reinsurance Treaty 1887 - Although alied with Austria, Germany maintained friendship with Russia by this treaty. The treaty was not a formal alliance. There were no specific terms committing the two powers to help each other. Russia was willing to sign the. treaty because she did not know about the Dual Alliance, which was kept in secret.
D. Franco-Kussian
Alliance 1893-94 Germany had always tried to prevent Russia and France from entering into an alliance so that, there would not be two
·必有
enemies on the two
fronts
·期星
of Germany
(Russia on the east; France on the west). However, on becoming Kaiser in 1890, William II of Germany
forced Bismarck to resign, and then dropped the friendship with France
to. This gave
to
good chance
form an
alliance with Russia against Germany. In. 1893-94, the two povers made an alliance. In he 'alliance, both France and Russia promised military help for each. other if attacked by another power.
E. Entente Cordialle 1904
- All European powers had allies except for Britain, so Britain decided to abandon her isolationist policy. At first, she approached Germany but William II was not enthusiastic for an alliance. Finally, in 1904, Britain and France settled their quarrels over colonial matters and concluded an agreement called Entente Cordialle. It was called an entente because Britain and France only promised help vaguely but did: not promise military. cooperation,"
F. Triple Entente 1907
France then-
en tried to
bring Russia and Britain into a closer understanding. The three powers concluded the Triple Entente in 1907.00
G. Conclusion By 1907, Europe was divided Into two camps: the Triple Entents against the Triple Alliance. This situation made it very likely for a minor dispute between the great powers to develop into a world war. This was because each of the great powers depended on support from her ally or allies. Then there was a greater chance for the great powers to use war instead of peaceful diplomacy ag a way of solving international disputes. They might take strong steps. against each other, as they did in the summer of 1914..
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ECONOMICS (2)
F.E. WONG & LT. CHAN
MILL & DALE PRESS LTD.
Basic Concepts (Cont'd) 7. Price and value
Price:
The price of a commodity is the sum of money which e person pays to a seller in order to obtain the ownership, of the commodity. Thus, the price of a certain commodity is that the exchange value of it which is in terms of money.
The price of a commodity is determined by supply and demand conditions in the free market. It tends to rise as
demand exceeds supply,
or fall as supply
exceeds demand in the
日一月十年四八九一圈公年三十七國民華中
market.
However, price may not move freely in
accordance with
changes in demand and supply due to market imperfections or government interventions.
Despite the fact that price may not reflect the real market conditions, it
still serve as an index for consumption, production, exchange,
and resources.
allocation to certain extent. In a mixed economy, price plays a very important role indeed.
Value:
For each commodity, there are two kinds of value, which are known as value in use and
'value in exchange":
The value in use of a commodity is the total utility which it yields as it is used. It reflects the usefulness of the commodity«:
The value in exchange of a commodity is the quantity of some other commodity for which the commodity can be
the. exchange. Thus, exchange value of a. commodity can be expressed in terms of units of some other commodity. It also can be expressed in terms of money, and is therefore called price.
The value in use' of a cosimodity may differ from its 'value
since in exchange", the latter is usually affected by the market demand and supply conditions. The higher the marginal utility of a commodity, the higher its value in exchange will be.
Production and Consumption Production:
Production is defined as any activity directed to the creation of goods or services with given. resources.
Production involves changes in time, place, form, and shapė of the resources. The main aim of production is to provide sufficient goods and services to satisfy human wants.
There are three stages of production
They are primary, secondary, and
tertiary production. They are interdepend ent on one another,
Consumption:
Consumption. is defined as the process of utilising a certain commodity or service, from which satisfac- tion is obtained by the person who uses it
Consumption is necessary for each individual and it is the primary motive for a person to work. As consumption occurs, utility is derived and the need for production arises, Income and Expenditure Income:
as
Income is defined
the inflow of money or wealth to an individual or
organisation. Income
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may arise as an reward
to land, labour,
capital, entrepreneur,
of a transfer payment such as pension, social welfare assistance, or subsidy.
If is important to distinguish between real and money income. Real income is the amount of goods that can be purchased with the income. It reflects the real purchasing power of the income. Money income is the nominal value of the money. In time of inflation, real income may fall although money.income. remains constant. Expenditure:
The outflow of money of a person a firm is called expenditure. The expenditure can be of various forms. It may be spent on the
consumption of certain. commodities and services, or the instalments of producer goods for further production.
Whenever income exceeds expenditure; stock of capital increases because the remaining income which is not spent will add to the stock of capital.
10.Types of Economy
there In general, are three types of economy. They are free economy mixed economy, and planned economy.
In a free economy: prices are freely determined by the interaction of demand and supply conditions of markets. There is no government interventions on the economy at all. Production and
consumption are
directed by price,
Decisions made by all producers, and consumers are free from any intervention from the government..
In a mixed economy both private sector and the government take part in the economic activities. The government. imposes taxes on certain groups of individuals and business enterprises and spends publie funds on certain public. projects or schemes run by the government. On the other hand,. private sector remains unaltered by the governmental actions. Businessmen still do their best in making.
while profits,
consumers have freedom in consumption to certain extent,
In a planned economy, the government decides on what goods should be produced, what factors of production should be adopted and in what quantities. Consumers have to accept the supply of commodities and services at prices. set by
In the government.
economy, it is government that dictates the
the
production
consumption,
distribution a nà
employment of factors of production.
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