育教僑舖頁三第張六第日一初月三年戌壬夏夏
1982
中學會考試題預習專欄
歷史
(#)
One of the articles of the League" was to empower its members to bring any trouble before the
League for investigation and settlement by the relevant League bodies,
9ĦĦAR¤#*# This was widely employed
HISTORY (24)
Philip Y. L. Woo
MILL & DALE PRESS LTD.
Describe the attempts. made to achieve inter-: national co-operation in Europe in 1919-1929: Explain the reasons for their failure during the 1930's.
The First World War destroyed much of Europe old diplomatic tradition, Before 1914 there was the Balance of Power between the five Great Powers, and Ediplomacy was practised in secret. After 1919, old empires like Austro- Hungary had collapsed, and little new democratic states had emerged in
by the members throughout the League's existence, The article was flexible in operation, giving the various - League bodies room for nanoevure with- nut tying them down to any specific formula of settlement,
The League'a greatest achievements, however, were in the economic, social and humanitarian fields. In fighting infectious diseases, co-ordinating relief work and drawing up. agreed codes of practice for the employment of labour, the League improved old procedures and pioneered new ones. Its economic rehabilita- tion of Austria and Hungary, its repatriation work to re-settle refugees and prisoners-
stkeir place. Also, the US of-wur, and its efforta
became involved in
European affairs, Secret diplomacy could no longer work. There, wus a general feeling that the First World War was in a way
caused by it. So instead
@ Europe dictated by
a few, attempts were made to fashion out a Europe shared by the many, It. was hoped that problems. could be solved by open and international
negotiations. Against such a background, efforts in obtaining international com operation were made in the 1920s.
The League of Nations was the first inter- national body in history. It aimed at reducing national armaments, guaranteeing the territo-| rial integrity and independence of all Member-states, preventing war negative kỵ hỵ th settling international disputes in joint. consultation, and
improving the world
Positively by all kinds
of humanitarian and
in combating slavery and -drug-smuggling, were of
enormous benefit to millions of people. The International Labour. Organization worked to improve the conditions. of workers throughout the world, and the Inter- national Court of Justice at the flague promoted international justice, So successful was the League in these spheres of antivities that an expansion of its social and economic functions. was advocated by a League committee in 1959.
But international co-operation was not confined to the League of Nations alone; much was conducted without it, either because. nany countries were not ita members, or because the nature of undertakings. did not properly belong to the league. As the US was not a League member, for instance, the
disamanent talk between her, Britain and Japan in the Pacific areas had to to done in the Washington
economic undertakings. In Conference of 1921-22, in
the Aaland Islands dispute between: Finland and Sweden in 1920-21, When the two countries struggled for the owner- ship of the islands, the League succeeded in sending a committee of enquiry to investigate the datter and settling ft beacefully by arbitra- tion. In 1921, territorial troubles arose in Upper Silesia between Germany and Poland, France and Britain attempted but failed to agree on a common action. Then, the League appointed four arbitrators to hear the case and ultimately divided the place between the two countries, though, ta be sure, neither party. was entirely satisfled. Yugoslavia's intended invasion of Albania was checked by the League's perquasion. Frontier disputes between Turkey and Iraq (Britain's mandate) over the great oil field of Mosul were handled competently by the League, as it was decided that the povereignty of the oil fæld belonged to Iraq while its oil revenue went to Turkey. This was honoured by both parties. Then, in 1925, fighting
roke out between Greece and Bulgaria over a frontier dispute, and the League intervenedį. stopped the hostilities, and worked out -a, settlement satisfactory. tooth countries.
which the Powers agreed to limit naval build-up as well as to guarantee the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ching. In 1925, the Locarno Pact was signed in Switzerland, by which France and Germany (not yet a League member) agreed to remain at peace. maintain their existing boundaries, and abide by the treaties reached. Then in 1927 the Kellogg- Briand Pact, which I originally was a treaty of friendship between Prance (represented by Briand) and the US (represented by Kellogg} but was later extended to include 61 other states, came into being. It renounced war an an instrument of national policy and promised to resort to peaceful means: in settling international disputes. The US and Soviet Russia, though not League members, were among the signatories. Indeed, considering the small magnitude of conflicts and the low intensity of tensions as well as the generally favourable economic situation, it is wholly understandable that the late 1920s was a time of optimistic expectation. With Briand of France and Stresemann of Germany trying to maintain peace on the diplomatic scene, and with other minne international organiza- tions (like the World
WAH KIỦ YAT PO
報日僑
Youth Congresses, Inter- national Academic Union) buildings up a sense of international-mindedness, Europe seemed to be entering an era of lasting peace.
But in spite of the accomplishments of the League in the many and varied fields, the League | should be judged by how
successful it was in maintaining the members' territorial integrity and political independence in the long run. It was unsuccessful. It failed, in the early 1930s, to check Japanose aggression: in China after the Manchurian crisis of 1931. After the conquest of Abyssinia by Mussolini and Hitler's re-occupation of the Rhineland, the League
ceased to count as an important international guardian of peace, 90 much so that when Czechoslovakia was invaded by Hitler in 1938, she did not even bother to appeal to the League. It failed to promote au înternational- ly agreed disarmament scheme, and failed to stop a major var from breaking out in Asia în 1937 and in Europe in 1939. On the whole, it succeeded only in
settling minor dispu
putes When major Powers were
involved in these disputes, such as
| Mussolini's occupation of
Corfu in 1923, and when these disputes had already reached the stage of armed conflict, quch as Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the League was helpless.
四期星
Settlement, the League was identified with the preservation of the Settlement itself. While Germany regarded the League as a continuation of the victorious Allied war-efforts, Russia considered the inter- national body a coalition and crusade of capitalist powers against Communien. Japan, on the other hand, entered the League just for the self-seeking purpose of occupying the German colonies in the Pacific and German concessions in Shantung. This lack of co-operation between the members had serious harmful effects on their concerted efforts to settle disputes through the League. In the Manchurian crisis of 1931, for instance, the US, due to ite isolationiam, maintained that no sanctions should be. employed against Japan. other than the force international public opinion. Also, France made it clear that she was unwilling to participate in any major League initiatives out- side Europe, In the Polish-Lithuanian dispute over Vilna, France deliberately immobilised the League to enable her ally, Poland, to consolidate its position. In the field of disarma-
ment, the sage divergence
of policies was evident. France was reluctant to reduce her armaments unless she secured-e cast-iron guarantee against any aggression. from Germany, Britain favoured armament limita- tions on economic grounds and was unwilling to make any promise to France. In Eastern Europe, Poland and Czechoslovakia feared attack from both Russia and Germany and refused to co-operate in schemes of disarmament unless and until the League'
capacity to combat
aggressiou was. strengthened. In short, members tried to tailor the functions of the League to fit their own particular requirements and policies. In the absence of any forces of the League's own, and in'
In the first place, the League was handicapped by its failure to include all all the major powers in its entire existence, Russia and Germany were at first excluded by the victorious Allies, and the USA chose to exclude itself. The League 's effectiveness, thug, depended on Franco- British co-operation. Germany was admitted in 1926, but Japan withdrew în 1933, and by the time the USSR had become a member in 1934, Germany too had left. Consequent- ly there was not a moment when all the great view of the. League's powers were simultaneous-inability to call upon ly members of the League.
In the second place, the League members were divided in policy and tried to pursue different objectives through the League. The USA, Britain and her Dominions, especially Canada, regarded the League US, AN Instrument, not to freeze the status-quo, but to regulate internationa I change. President Wilson of the US hoped that any defects in the Versailles Settlement of 1919. could be remedied through the League itself, and it was Britain's aim to depend on the League to facilit- ate the peaceful settle- ment of disputes in order to perserve her empire and encourage the revival of world trade. To France and her eastern allies. (such as Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia), however, the Lengue vas a means to protect them from German aggrossion; the League should therefore freeze the status quo and oppose any changes. Any proposals for "peaceful change" to rehabilitate Germany were regarded as threats to their very existence as sovereign powers. To Russia and Germany, who themselves were most dissatisfied [with the Vorsailles
members' armed forces to carry out its decisions, all that the League could do was to advise members on what actions to take having no authority to cuforce its advice.
With the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, the League was further discredited, Caught in severe economic and political crises, European nations jealously guarded their self-interests for. protection, at the expense of co-operation. They fell back on their own national policies, instead of looking to the League for international- ly concerted action, Peace agreements reached, in the 1920s needed faith and sincerity on the signatories' part to be effective. In the 1930s, economic and social problems and the rise of militarist Nazism and Fascism eroded such faith and sincerity away. Nationalist rivalries, which were seemingly pacified in the 1920s, were once again exacerb- nted. The League's spirit. of international co- operation, the Geneva Spirit, was not strong enough to overcome nations deepest prejudicea. Socially, pacifist sentiment was
the
日五廿月三年二八九一曆公年一十七國民華中
strong, in France, Britain, the USA',
Scandiavia and the Low
countries. Sufferings in
the First World War made many Europeans feel that such a
warehousing facilities
jeto, kovise have kolp
to increase the domestic exports.
In recent years, products fron Hong Kong
ROBE
have attained war should never. occur again. The result was the appeasement policies of Britain and France towards Fascist and Nazist aggressions to seek peace at whatsoever cost, even betraying the interests and sovereignty of the smaller nations. That is why during Mussolini's invasion of Abyssinia, economic sanctions of the League against Italy were not enthusiastically enforced. France, in particular, was reluctant to alienate Mussolini. Un the other band, in Germany and Italy, war was regarded as a path to national revival. Expan sionist policies were pursued. While Britain and the US were cutting down their armaments, Hitler and Mussolini were building up theirs. The Teague was therefore depriving itself of its resources of military power to enforce its decisions and resist aggressions, if ever there was the will to resist, The smaller countries were thus forced to fall back to relying on armed strength for protection, Confront- ation replaced good will on the diplomatic scene, which at/last plunged Europe into another World. War in 1939..
quality standards. These are made possible by the imported technology, the presence of experienced industrialists, technical training facilities and industrial promotion," The products of Hong Kong are fairly cheap because of the relatively cheap labour and attempts to raise productivity, Furthermore, trade is promoted by the govern- ment and other agencies,
e.g. Trade Development Council und the Hong Kong Expert Credit Insurance. Corporation. All of these contribute to the growth of the domestic exports ...of Hong Kong.
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Economics :(24)
KIK Wong & L.T. Chan MILL & DALE PRESS LTD. 1. Give the reasons for
the rapid growth of Hong Kong's external trade. What are the
difficulties encountered by long Kong in her expart of fomestic products? Give examples. Hong Kong is a British colony and is situated at the mouth of the Pearl River, a gateway of China. Being also located at the midway of many sea routes she handles trade between China and the West. Her deep, sheltered harbour together with other facilities enable her to become a major port in the world. The laissez faire policy (with minimum government intervention) and the low tax here are additional factors foi the emergence of Hong Kong as an entrepot trade centre.
Since 1950, attempts in industrialization were. proved to be successful. After the Second World War, Hong Kong started to export her goods to those foreign countries which were in shortage of consumer goods. This directly helped to increase the external demand for Hong Kong products.
Later, the enhargeo. against China provided the opportunity for Hong "Kong to become a source.
of Chinese crafts to the United States. On the other hand, the Common Wealth Preference also contributed to the growth of the domestic exports. of Hong Kong, There are many import-export firms. having established commercial relations with other countries and foreign firms. Moreover, the presence of developed financial institutiorg (e.g. banks and insurance companies) as well as excellent transport aud communication, port and
The rupid growth of- imports, on the other. hand, was attributable to Hong Kong's reliance on imported foodstuffs, raw materials and capi.
capital goods and her rapid growth of population and industry. The situation of practically no festriction on imports in Hong Kong also contribut.. ed to the growth of importa. Difficulties, encountered by Hong Kong are: 1. Trade barriers, auchi-
as tariffs and quotas, are juposed on Hong Kong is hampered.
2. Keen competition comes from other neigbouring or developing
Countries e.g, Taiwan, South Korea and Singapore, which supply and export. cheaper products. 3. The rising rents,
wages and raw material cost in recent years. result in the increases in the costs of production for local products.
4. The Commonwealth:
Preference is cancell- ed and this has weakened the competi tive power of long. Kung's exports,
5. Economic fluctuations- in the world, especial ly in the major markets of Hong Kong, affect adversely the demand for the exports
of Hong Kong.
6. The monet
etary fluctun- tion
the world is. another problem that adds to the difficul ties affecting Hong Kong's exports.
The present existed training facilities for industries in Hong Kong are not adequate, 8. Since Hong Kong relies
heavily upon other countries for the supply of raw materials and capital goods, the fluctua- tions in import price. means that production costs are unstable. Hence, to maintain a relatively stable price for 'exports. becomes quite dffficult and this will affect the demand of export's in an unfavourable manner. 9. Hong Kong's exporta
have been concentrated on a few markets and a few products. Thus, economic recessions in those countries and decrease in the demand of those products may turn Hong Kong to a dangerous position since Hong Kong is 50 export-dependent,
10. Because of the lack
of natural resources and the absence of a large domestic market, Hong Kong is in a weak bargaining position and often