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HISTORY (28)
Philip Y. L.. Woo
„MILI & DALE PRÈSS LTD.
Soon you will be sitting for the dert exam, and I trust that now you are all preparing for it. As. far as the subject history is concerned, there are a number of topics that you MAY pay more attention top. Don take this: piece of advice as some sort of pre-exam tips. There's simply not such a thing. Only that because the syllabus is extensive and the time available is now limited, it is wise to concentrate on some parts of the syllabus (assuming that the other parts you have already been introduced to). The topics. that you can pay more attention to are:
East Asia 1870-1952
Hundred Day Reform (1898)
background, contents,
ffects and reasons for. ailure:
The 1911-12 Revolution in China
causes, course, effects, ple played by Dr. Sun Yat-
en, reasons for success.
Sino-Japanese relations 1914- 1919 - China and Japan's
participation in the First. Bemorld War, Japan's
resentation of the 21 demands to China; war-time
vities of Japan in China nd East Asia (such as articipation in the Siberian Expedition to check the 1
bread the Russian Revolution in 1915),
Communist-nationalist relations
95-1949 - how the relations.
orsened, reasons for the success of communism. Mo modernization 1870-1912
easons for success.
Tope 1870-1960
First World War 1914-1918
the cause of nationalisin or militarism, general effects of the war.
The Hague Conferences 1899 and 907 attempts at
disarmament and reasons for failure. Past-World War II Europe
reasons for the decline of colonialism, reasons for the rapid economic recovery.
Formore a detailed analysis of the topics, you can see these books:
History (Mill & Dale Model Answers Series) published by Mill & Dale Press Ltd, Modern East Asian History: a comprehensive analysis 1870- 1952 published by Summerson (HK) Educational Research Centre
In this and the coming issues of this column, we will analyse these topics in a broad way. The important thing to remember at this moment is to understand and digest the contents rather than memorizing specific pieces of fact like dates and names, In an essay you are required to explain and describe, but you cannot hope to do so if you just. stuff the essay with dates and names. What we write reflects what we have in mind very closely. Of course language (i, e. English) is a problem. One may say that even if you have lots of ideas in mind, you cannot
put them in words of
handicapped on the language, side. But people forget that
ideas themselves take shape in your mind only in the form of the language that we use. In the case of Chinese, the language is Chinese of course. And this is exactly where the problem lies --- we put things and Ideas inte our mind in Chinese, but we are expected to write the things and ideas out in English.p Anyway at a time as late as this, don't continue to inject names and dates and so on into you. mind. It's an insult to your cleverness.
CAUSES AND BACKGROUND A.The advocacy of institutional
rèform by progressive officials
More progressive officials like Feng Kuei-ten ( argued that for real self-strengthening, China should develop basic Western: Institutions (like government organization and education) that gave rise to those techniques and military technologies,
B.The reform-minded scholars!
recognition of the inadequacy of the Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1894)
Ever since 1B85, when Ch'ing China was defeated by France in Indo-China, more and more scholar-officials (like: Chang Chih-tung and Weng Tung-ho) knew the
Self-Strengthening Movement was inadequate to save China. Institutional reform was really necessary. C.The introduction of Western
ideas of reform
1. By foreign missionaries Besides preaching their religion, foreign missionaries, especially the British and American Protestants, introduced: Western knowledge and culture to China.
a. They established schools,
gave public lectures, opened libraries, and published newspapers and magazines...
Through discussions, foreign missionaries convinced quite a number of Chinese scholars and officials of the need for reform. Indeed, Klang Yu-wei (148), the most important reformer in the 1898 Reform, admitted that many of his ideas on reform came from missionaries.
ii. Through treaty ports -
Western social and political ideas were most easily. learnt by the Chinese who lived in treaty ports and. cities.
D. The rise of a generation of politically conscious and more progressive-minded young scholars
i. Translations of Western books on a variety of subjects were abundant in late 19th-century China. ii. The improved
communications between different places helped in the growth and spread of national consciousness among Chinese scholars. iii. Fraditionally speaking, the
scholar class (shih ) in China had the responsibility. of saving the country in time of crisis. With the repeated national. humiliations that China suffered after 1840, the young scholars became especially sensitive to national problems and were ready to defend their country,
E. The effects of the Sino
Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)
China's quick defeat in the Sino-Japanese War further convinced many Chinese scholar-officials that more fundamental reform was both urgent and necessary, The humiliating treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895 aroused much public anger in China. Some 600 young students from all over China signed a Ten. Thousand Words Memorial (b) that rejected the Shimonoseki agreement and advocated.institutional reform. The leader was Kang Yu-wei (A). Despite the official and traditional prohibitions against any political grouping, young scholars began to form associations known as haueh-huf () to save the Country. Many of these societies had the support of influential officials like Yuan Shih-k'ai ( and Chang Chin-tung ((kt). The younger and idealistic scholars like Kang Yu-woi, however, were dissatisfied with the limited and moderate reforms carried out by Yuan and Chang in the provinces. These idealistic scholars favoured broader and deeper; institutional changes initiated from Peking.
F. The effects of the Scramble
for Concessions (1895-1899) Foreign imperialism was intensified in the Scramble for Concessions. It further showed the necessity and urgency of institutional reform. The Emperor was deeply impressed by Klang Yu-wei's reform ideas and was more and more determined to put into effect institutional changes. Dissatisfied with the Empress Dowager's continued domination over the Ching: court, Kuang-hsu intended to make use of a reform movement led by himself to regain power, though on the other hand he really wanted to save China: On June 11, 1898, he issued the first reform decree, telling the. people to learn foreign knowledge. The Hundred Day Reform had begun.
G. The political struggle within
the Ch'ing court Meanwhile, a political struggle took place between the Kuang-hsu Emperor (th and his aunt, the Empress Dowager Tzu-hal (), within the Ch'ing court. Although Kuang-hsu was the Emperor, real power was held by Tzu-hsi
CONTENTS
From June to September 1898, Kang Yuswei and his young followers prepared many edicts and decrees for the Emperor to sign. Some 200 or so reform decrees were issued in quick succession. A broad program for reform of institutions! (pien-fa) was attempted. The reform measures ingluded the following:
1. Education -
a. Abolition of the Eigit-
legged essay (18) in the Civil Service Examinations
b. Abblition of a
« swordsmanship and
marksmanship in the militart examinations. c. Opening of a 'special
examination on political economy.
d. Establishment of an.
imperial University in . Peking. Founding of a medical school under it.
e. Establishment of primary. and secondary schools in the provinces for the
study of both Chinese and Western subjects.
f. Publication of an official
newspaper.
ii, Government administration
a. Abolition of sinecurè
posts jobs with a salary but involving no work) and unnecessary offices, including the governorships of a few provinces.
b. Appointment of
progressive-minded off als in government. Introduction of stricter disciplines for civil Servants. Measures to check corruption. Improvement in administrative efficiency by removing delays and by developing a new, simplified administrative procedure. Creation of 12 new Ministries to. replace the old 6 Boards (traditionally responsible for top government administration in Peking). Encouragement of reform suggestions from private citizens.:
iii. Military reform
a. Reorganization and
modernization of the
army.
b. Founding of militia forces (part-time soldiers for local self-defence).
Economic reform
a. Promotion of railway
construction.
b. Promotion of agricultural,
industrial and
commercial developments. Founding of banks. Encouragement of inventions..
d. Preparation of a
government budget,
RESULTS
The reform movement only lasted for 103 days.
Most of the reform were not carried out. Only in the province of Hunan, where there was a governor. sympathetic to the reform, was a serious attempt made to put into effect the Emperor's decrees.
ii. At first, the Empress
Dowager and other high officials like Chang Chih- tung and Weng Tung-ho were not opposed to the idea of reform. But as conservatives, they disliked the radical changes proposed by Kang and the Emperor. Opposition to the reform grew,
iii. Many top conservative officials, eunuchs and Manchus begged the Empress Dowager to take over power and rule herself so as to stop the reform. movement.
iv. The young reformers
feared that the Empress Dowager would sooner or later interfere and depose the Emperor. They therefore planned to carry out a palace revolt by capturing the Empress. They asked Yuan Ship-k'ai to support them with troops. However, Yuan betrayed the Emperor and the reformers by telling the
Empress Dowager everything about the intended revolt.
v. The Empress Dowager
immediately imprisoned the
Emperor, took over the government, and gave orders to arrest the reformers, six of whom were captured and killed. Kang Yu-wei and Llang Ch'i-ch'ao were, however, warned in time to escape abroad. Most of the reform measures were cancelled..
REASONS FOR THE FAILUKE OF THE HUNDRED DAY REFORM
A. Reform on paper
Many of the reform measures were not put into practice, B. Opposition to the reform
The reforms attacked both Chinese tradition and the self-interests of many people. 1. Conservatives felt that the
political tradition of the dynasty had been violated by the reforms. They felt that Kang and his followers intended to destroy Chinese culture.
ii. The Empress Dowager and her followers believed that the reform was just an excuse used by the Emperor. and Kang Yu-wei to struggle for political power, iii. The abolition of the Eight-
legged essay, together with, changes in the educational system, ruined the future of students who had been preparing for the traditional government examinations.
iv. The abolition of Sinecure
posts and governorships ruined the future of many officials.
The appointment of young, new and progressiveminded scholars to the government endangered the political career of many existing officials.
vi. Many Manchus believed
that the new reform measures were especially directed against them, because:12 a,quite a number of
conservative Manchu officials had been dismissed from the Central government: b.all the young reformers
were Chinese;
Kang Yu-wei came from South China, where there was a strong anti-Manchu tradition,. vii. Changes in the military.
forces threatened the. privileges and livelihood of the Marichu bannermen and the Chinese Green Standard Army (traditional Ch'ing armies).
viii. The attack on corruption
was unwelcomed by those officials who got rich by this unlawful practice. ix, Palace eunuchs who were.
favoured by Tz'u-hsi, feared that administrative reforms would reveal their practice of corruption.
C. The lack of effective political
power
Without strong political power, no reform could be effectively carried out.
The Empress. Dowager had powerful influence at the Ch'ing court
Regional decentralization - Ever since the Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864 KF £.
the dynasty's political power had been decentralized, Peking's control over the provinces was getting weak and was on the decline.
D. The inexperience of the
reformers
1. Both Kang Yu-wei and
Liang Ch'inch áo had no previous experience in administration. Their knowledge of Western institutions was, moreover, limited.
ii. In carrying out reforms,
they were not tactful enough. In the months' time, they a. ned at doing away with all of China's problems at one blow.
E. The lack of popular support
from the common people Reformers like Kang Yu-wei came from the scholar class. They had little contact with and enjoyed no support of the common people.
F. Kang Yu-wei's radical ideas
To Confucian conservatives, K'ang was a traitor to. Confucianism.
G. Conclusion
Many of the reform measures were not actually practised. But one could doubt, whether they would succeed even if they were really put into practice.
EFFECTS OF THE HUNDRED DAY REFORM
A. The re-establishment of
conservative power
B.
The Empresa Dowager came back with full power to the Ching court and re-appointed die-hard conservative Manchus to top official positions.
The growth of an anti-foreign attitude at the Ching court In 1898, as the Empress Dowager tried to arrest the reformers, Kang Yu-wei and Liang Ch'i-ch'ao were helped to escape from China. by the British and the. Japanese respectively. Consequently, anti-foreign feelings were strong at the Ch'ing court. This factor partly led to the Boxer Uprising in 1900-01..
C. The disappointment with reform as a way to save China
The failure of the Hundred Day Reform seemed to prove that reform from the top was useless. More and more Chinese came to believe that in order to save China, the Manchu dynasty (which opposed change) must be overthrown, and revolution from the bottom must be carried out.
D. The way
efforts
y for i
continued reform
Although the Empress Dowager was opposed to the Hundred Day Reform, the reform measures that were introduced, had an. unforgettable impression on
her.
F. The birth of modern Chinese
nationalism
The enthusiastic organization. of nation-saving groups like the Study Societies represented the beginning of Chinese nationalism among the young Confucian scholars. Nationalistic consciousness among them grew.
Page 15Page 16
日三廿月三年酉辛変
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