頁二第張三第日五廿月九年申庚屦夏
1981
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經濟 (四)
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·陳勵德
Economics (4)
K.K. Wong & L.T.Chan
MILL & DALE PRESS LTD.
Division of labour
1. Introduction
Human being are
interdependent because we cannot live without the help of other members in the community. We all specialize in some sort of job in the society in order to produce some useful commodities or services. In other words, we cannot produce all the goods and services we need for our survival. We can only take part of the production activities and create the need for exchange with others.
Therefore, specialization into carrer is essential.
For the same token, in modern economy, the production operation are so complex that there is an increasing use of capital in production and the adoption of mass production system. Usually the production activities are divided into different processes and sub-processes in which every process is assigned to particular group of workers or individual. Therefore, only a small part of the work is undertaken by one person or a group, each of whom specializes in a single process.
... By the same way, because of the existence of - international trade system, different commodities are produced by different countries, depending upon climate, oil, availability of
raw materials and labour. It is also said to be a kind of specialization into different countries.
2. Definition öf
division of labour
A. In a narrower sense,
division of labour means that the manufacturing process is broken down into a series of separate activities, each of which is performed by a separate operation carried out by particular person or particular group of workers. B. In a broader sense,
division of labour means the separation of production into different stages and occupation, which are carried out by different firms in manufacturing industries such as the spinning sector, weaving sector, knitting sector, finishing sector and garment making sector. C. In the broadest sense;
division of labour may refer to international division of labour which is the origin of international trade, It means that each country specializes in manufacturing on the ⠀ product and exchanges it with the other countries through international markets. Consequently, each country would obtain comparative advantages from the exchange behavior,
3. Aims of
division of labour
The main aim of division of labour system is to increase output. In other words, it can increase the productivity by making full use of productive resources including labour, land,
WAH KIU YAT PO
machinery and equipment so as to increase the quantity
of the products and to
improve the quality of
products. As a result,
through the division of labour, production becomes more efficient and effective,
1. Types of
division of labour
A Simple division of labour.
It refers to the specialization of one trade and industry by a particular specialist or firm or manufacturing unit. For instance, in the economy there is natural division of production performed by various firms and people such as engineers, bakers, shoemakers and
carpanters, etc.
B. Complex division of labour
It refers to the specialization of more detailed process or sub-process by particular firm or production unit. It is the further division of work into particular aspect of a special trade. Usually, the production processes are more complex. The breaking down of production process of car m
manufacturing is an example.
International, division of
labour
It refers to the
specialization of particular trade or industry by the special country. Since modern technology has developed specialization so that the geographical specialization becomes possible. For example, each country would specialize in one product which is world famous. Scotch whisky, and Swiss watches are demanded
everywhere.
5. Advantages of division of
labour
A. increase output,
B. great skills of the workers
because of practicing,
C. a saving of time by
keeping to single process, D. make full use of
machinery and equipment, E, provide more employment
opportunities to the specialists,
F. standardize the quality of
the products,
G. the workers would become
less fatigue by maintaining the same pace in division. of labour system,
H, reduce cost of production,
For international
specialization of labour, each country can fully. utilize its productive resources and there are greater comparative advantages over them.
6. Disadvantages of division
of labour
A. monotony of the work, B. greater risk of
unemployment because of highly specialized emplotment,
C. loss of job satisfaction leads to decline of craftsmanship,
D. if there is delay in
completing one part of work, the entire production schedule would be hindered, E. the workers may suffer
perform occupational disease.
7. Limitations to division of
labour
Although the division system is generally of cabon used in modern
manufacturing industries, there are some limitation. A. The extent of the market
Since division of labour allows mass production, the output of
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a's
日期星
production is increased in large quantities. There is a problem that some goods are not in mass demand such a bacon cutters, ham slicers, etc. In other words, the markets demand of these goods may not need the mass production system. Sometimes the manufacturing can be performed by sole producer to the best of his ability.
B. Technical impossibility
Sometimes it is difficult to subdivide a production process into a number of sub-processes. When each process has been reduced to a minimum activity, it is impossible
to make further division of labour possible.
C. Greater risk in production
Because of the breaking down of production activity the production of large output becomes more. risky. Entrepreneurs will suffer from any economic declines such as inadequate
monetary system, inflation problem and unemployment problem.
1981
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歷史
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HISTORY (4)
Philip Y.L. Woo
MILL & DALE PRESS LTD.
The following is an outline of the
Meiji modernization (1868-1912),
"Meiji" came from The word
the name of the emperor who ruled Japan during this period the Meiji Emperor. Before 1868, Japan was basically a feudal Country : no central government, backward economy and society etc. From that year to 1912, when the Meiji Emperor died, many reforms were attempted, and they changed, or transformed, Japan greatly. Japan then became a modern state. The process through which Japan became a modern state is known as
1. modernization. Today, many countries in Africa and Asia try: tomodernize themselves so as to become strong.
Background to modernization - Why did Japan try to modernize herself?
-
1. Western imperialism Since
1853-54, foreigners came to Japan and opened her up for trade and increased contact with the rest of the world. A) Economic imperialism Western goods entered Japan and destroyed much. of the traditional handicraft industries. B) Military imperialism -
Western countries had
superior technology and weapons. They could use them to threaten Japan's safety.
Therefore, the Meiji
statesmen (who helped create. the new Meiji state in 1868) set the goals of
modernization as "rich country and strong army". 2. Meiji Restoration The.
Meiji Emperor was restored to rule in 1868, when the old ruling power, the Tokugawa shogunate, was overthrown. This made it possible for. modernization to carry out. Preliminary steps to modernization - Before modernization could be successfully carried out, a few steps had to be taken, which include:
日二月一十年〇八九一瑟公年九十六國民葘中育教儒華
1. Abolition of feudalism -
Politically, clan
governments of the past: (ruling different parts of Japan rather independently) were abolished. Socially, the samurai social position was cancelled, so that all people "enjoyed équal rights and shared responsibilities, 2. Setting up a centralized government - This is necessary before central planning of the modernization programmes could be carried out.
3. Creation of reliable sources of income for the central government - The land tax was reformed. In 1873, all landowners were required by law to pay a yearly tax of 3% of the land value to the central government. So the central government had money to carry out its different modernization programmes.
Different modernization programmes - The Meiji government carried out these rpogrammes at the same time. The willingless to do so
explained why the result was success.
1. Economic modernization Development of military. strategic industries. This is understandble, in view of the
felt need to defend the country against foreign
imperialism. Development of ̈consumer industries too.
This aimed at protecting Japanese goods against foreign economic imperialism.
a) Firstly, agriculture was
modernized, for Japan was still an agricultural country at this time. With money income obtained from agricultural development, the Meiji government could finance other modernization
programmes.
b) In the 1870s, the Meiji
government developed industries herself, because private interests were unwilling to do so, in view of the risk involved.
c) In the 1880s, the Meiji
government sold non-military industries to private hands but retained. control of the military industries.
d) Because of c), some
private Japanese companies benefitted greatly. They obtained industries from the government at very cheap prices. They became financial giants or financial combines called
the zaibatsu (MBA).
2. Educational modernization
There were 2 main aims: i. acquiring Western knowledge. ii. strengthening national unity.
a) In the 1870s, universal,.
compulsory education was introduced and carried out. However, soon Conservatives feared that Western education would destroy Japan's national tradition. They opposed education on Western, liberal line.
b) In the 1880s or so,
education became more and more illberal and conservative. Although Japanese still learnt Western technology, they were taught absolute loyalty to the state, not free thinking. This was the root of Japan's ultra-nationalism, which later (in the 20th century led to conquest of China: and the Second World War)
led Japan to disaster.
c) Meanwhile, during the
Meiji period, because national unity was strengthened by
educational modernization/
educational-modernization contributed to the success of all modernization. programmes,
3. Military modernization – At first, the aim was to defend Japan against the possible attack from foreigners. From the 1300s on, however the aim was win offensive wars and acquire imperialist possessions: a) 1873, Conscription Law
All adult male citizens had to serve in the army or navy for a period.
b) 1878 and after, discipline in the army and navy was made tighter. Administration was centralized. Thereafter, the Japanese military forces bacame more and more authoritarian and
conservative.
4. Political modernization
constitutional movement. a) It started as a struggle for
power among the Meiji leaders. Some leaders wanted to make use of the movement (calling for the adoption of a constitution); to obtain power from the ruling leaders. Therefore there was not a real hope. for the benefits of a constitution,
From 1868 to1877, some of the Meiji leaders opposed the ruling leaders by armed rebellion. The rebellions were suppressed. So the opposition leaders chose the peaceful way of struggling for power through the constitutional movement.
a) 1881 the Meiji
government announced that a constitution would be adopted by 1889. The Meiji government wished to imitate Western political example.
b) From 1881 to 1889, the
Meiji government strengthened the rule of the Emperor and
discouraged the
activities of political: parties.
Therefore when the constitution was adopted in 1889, there was no much change to the basically illberal, authoritarian nature of the Meiji state.
The
Results of modernization results were superficial (on the surface):
1. Only national institutions were
changed; rural society remained very conservative. Thoughts of the people were still traditional.
2. But meanwhile, Japan
successfully protected herself against foreign imperialism. In fact, because Japan had been successfully modernized, she became an imperialist power herself.
3. When Japan was weak in the
1850s or 1860s), she had to sign some unequal treaties with the Western powers. When Japan was
successfully modernized, she revised these unequal treaties (in the 1890s).
4. But be cause undemocratic,
authoritarian forces were, present during the
modernization process, the ground was paved for the rise of militarism later,
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