REFERENCE LIBRAR ↑
ű僑華
- 7 NOV 1969 頁三篛張六第日八廿月九年日曆靈WAH KHE WAT
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報日僑華
EXO#文中學會考試題預習專欄
・堅道英大院主締料
歷史科
HISTORY (1)
What were the origins of the Congress System and why did it break down?.
The Congress System was not a sudden creation of the great powers after the Congress of Vienna. Ita origins could be traced back to the Treaty of Chanmont, Maren, 1814 in which Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia agreed to overthrow Napoleon and then to remain in alliance for twenty years, in ordez to maintain the territorial and, political settlement: to be reached as soon as Napoleon should be defeated. It was re-affirmed by the Quadruple Alliance, Nov. 1815, and, in addition, a clause stipulated that periodic meetings of the representatives of the great. powers should be held for the purpose of consulting upon their common interest and for the consideration of the measures most salutary, for the maintenance of the peace of Europe. While the Quadruple Alliance provided a justification for the interference of despotic powera in the internal affairs of smaller nationa, the Holy Alliance signed by nearly all rulers in Europe (except the Prince Regent of England, Pope Pius VII and the Sultan of Turkey) supplied the necessary spiritual endorsement, The- Quadruple Alliance and the Holy Alliance, which ware the corner stones of the Congress System must, therefore, be seen as a continuation of the Napoleonic Alliance and an outgrowth of the fear of the great powers fear of the return of Napoleon to France; fear of the various national and liberal
—
revolutionary movements in their own countries and fear of internal strikes and riots which might develop into major revolutionary movements during the post-war economic depression. In short, the Congress System was a creation of the great powers to stamp out the revolutionary tide and to proBEZVO the despotio and conservative rule of Prussia, Russia and Austria (later, even France).
It would be untrue to say that Britain also dreamt the game dream when she joined the Quadruple Alliance. On the contrary, from the outset, Castlereagh had made it clear that she would only join in to keep the territorial settlements of 1815 but would not interfere the internal affairs of othe, countries. This was the germ that led later to the breakdown of the Congress System for Britain was a Parliamentary government and, being a constitutional country, she could not but look at the liberal and national movements in the continent with sympathy, Britain was also a commercial country and she had to defend her trading intereste even at the sacrifice of the Congrass System as seen in the independence movement of the Latin American states. Besides7 England was too busily engrossed in her post-war problems and internal reforms as well as overseas' expansion to take an active role in continental affairs, hence, the beginning of her long spell of isolation. Such basic differences between England and her continental friends were further accentuated by the national and liberal movements in the 1920's.
In the Congress of Ain-la-Chapelle, Lord Castlereagh turned down the Tzar's proposal of sending Troops to help the Spanish King to regain? his South American colonies. In the Congress is of Troppan and Laibach, Castleneagh opposed to the intervention of great powers in the internal revolts in Spain and Naples. When revolt broke out in Fortugal England even sent troops to support the constitutional government in Lisbon. In 1824, England
took lead to recognize the Republics in South America ae independent states. Though the continental liberal policy of Britate might spring partly from her trading interests in South Amerion, it did serve to defeat the chief aim of the Congress System of suppressing revolutions as hoped by Metternich. In fact, after 1820. England only sent. observers to the Congresses, But, still, the Congresa System kept on functioning with her three autocratic Eastern powera and a newly opentent ally, France.
The last episode that wrecked the Congress System beyond repair was the Greek War of Independence. The initial difference between England and her allien was, widened into an international: conflict and made the common pursuit of an accepted
policy in Europe impossible. While England displaced. her usual Russophobia and looked at the activities of the Russians in the Balkans with suspicion, the atrocities committed by Mehemet Ai in Greece won the British and the French to the side of the Greeks. The Tzar of Russia, as head of the Orthodox Church, naturally championed the cause of the Greek War of Independence. Metternich, in his ernest desire to keep revolutionary movements in check and to maintain the balance of power in Europe, tried to prevent the intervention of other great powers. He hoped that. the revolt would burn itself out beyond the pale of civilization. There was to be no unanimous agreement of the great powers on the policy concerning the Greek War of Independence. The indecision at the Congress of Verona, 1822 was replaced by swift and direct actions at the Battle of Navarino, 1827. Certainly it was not a faithful execution of the principles of the Congress System but a testimony of the individual and free actions. of the great powers as they saw best to serve their own interests.
The breakdown of the Congress System was due to a medley of factors. The disposal of Napoleon, the return of normal situation in France and the passing of the post-war slump years helped to reduce the necessity of a Congress System and hence, loosen its. fabric. The major factor, however, was the basic differences in political and economic terms of the great powers, Nationalism and liberalian were only
tools for the revolutionary movements only served to magnify the inherent differences of the great powers. The seed of destruction was sown even before the Congress System. And the Greek War of Independence was, at best, the last straw that breaks the camel's
AQ
2. How did the Austrians deal with the problema that
arose within their Empire in 1848-18492
1848 certainly looks like the end of the Austrian Empire. In Hungary, the Haroh laws wers peased and the Hungarian home rule was granted. In Prague, the Czech intellectuals under Palacky also wanted their March Laws and a Slav Congress was held in June. In Italy, the Italians turned down the Austrian government's proposal of ceding Lombardy to Sardinia and granting autonomy to Venetia, and demanded nothing short of the complete surrender by. Austria of all her Italian territory. In Vienna,
the storm centre of revolution, a Committer of Publis Safety was set up (later, a Constituent Assembly) to direct the revolution and to supervise the activities
of ministers. Nationalism and liberalism hed
virtually torn the Empire apart, Should the events follow their logical sequence in 1848, it would have. led to the disintegration of the Austrian Empire. short, the 1848 Revolution in the Austrian Empire,
unlike that of France, was not only a struggle: between liberalism and conservatism but also a struggle for survival on the part of the Habsburg Empire and the critical situation demanded the finesse of a super-genius for Metternich, the evil genius of conservatism had to resign and flee to Ingland.
But, the Habsburg House did not possess such super-genius nor could they fight against the revolutionary tide at its hour of triumph. The Austrian Emperor could only retreat to Inne bruck and played a waiting game. And time did work havoo in the various national and liberal movemente in the empire for soon they revealed their inherent weaknesses. Not only was each racial group sharply. divided within itself among those championing different vicus of the future; each provincial area. suffered further internal conflicts of interest between landownera great and small, middle and
professional classes and peasants. And a policy of divide and rule would in time play one off against the other and in the end led to the triumph of the Austrian Emperor.
Already, nationalism. had created a cleavage among the Germanus, They were divided over the composition of a future united Germany should it be a Lesser Germany or a Greater Germany. (including Austrik but excluding Hungarian)? There was no final answer
but the hasted debates at Frankfurt only served to weaken the national movement both in Austria and Prussia. Woên both Austria and Prussia withdrew thin representatives from Frankfurt in September, 1849, the Assembly collapsed. However, this upsurge of German nationalism did pose as a threat to the other national movemente inside the Empire. In Prague, the Czechs and other Slavs feared that their interests. would be sacrificed in a Greater Germany! and refused to sead deputies to Frankfurt, thus alienating the support of the radical Gernans, At the same time, the Slovaks did not want, ana independent Hungary outside a "Greater Germany it would me-n the subordination of the Slavaks to the Hungarian rule. The muteral suspicion of the Slays and the Germans enabled the Austrian Emperor to play. ond off against the other and thereby weakened the
unity of the Constituent Assembly in Vienna. Whe
10
revolt broke out in October over the Hungarien issue it was easily crushed by Windischgratz and the situation in Vienna was once again under control.
In Hungery, a similar opportunity was offered when Kossuth pressed forward the Greater Hungary'. programme. The Austrian Emperor simply whipped up the national feelings of the subject Slav races to open revolts in Hungary. 1849 saw the anti-Magyar risings of Slovaks in the north, Serbs in the east and Croata in the south-west. Despite Kossuth's effort to etage a subborn resistance, it was mercilessly crushed down by internal resolte and external attack by Russian and Austrian troops in August. 1849. Budapest was occupied and Kossuth fled to Turkey.
While the triangular relationship of Germanus, Kagyare and Slavs made 'divide and rule" possible, the waning of liberal forces at the end of 1848 put the Auetrian Empire on a firm stand, The Curancipation Act which abolished the labour service (Robot) and": gave security of tenure to the peasants pacified the aggressive revolutionary spirit of the peasantry and weakened the liberal movement. Hencefarth, the paasants lost interest in politice and watched with indifference the victory of absolutism,
In the urban centros, the middle-class liberals recoiled and repented at the shadow of social revolution for preservation of property went berora national and liberal revolutions. By August, the students and lover middle classes of Vienna had abandoned the workers. Thus, the Austrian Empror suddenly found that he was supported by a group of repentent middle-class and aided by an even.. larger group of indifferent peasantry.
Though the national and liberal movements in Austria contained seeds of their own distruction, it would, however, ba, unrealistic to say that the triumph of the Habsburg Empire was built on the
policy of divide and rule alone. In Italy, the division of national movement for liberation under the leadership of Pope Pius IX, Mazzini and Charles' Albert undoubtedly weakened its force but the military strength of the Austrian troops under Radetzky was a crucial factor in terminating the Italian revolutionary movement at Custòzza in
五期星 日七月一十年九六九一軀公年八十五國民華中
學會考試題預習專欄
物理科 (ㄧ)
·鄧炳恩·
前言
物理科用解题方式進行複習,内容分力学 物性學热學、光學、声學與電磁學六部份每一部 份再分若干徊单元,每一单元都分填-
與問答 計算題
̇物理科會考試題近年來仍分甲、乙两部中 部填-
題題全答ㄩ問答計算題則七題選 答四題所以我們進行複習時命題方
為根據第一次為填-
題第二次為 答計算 題以後輪流替換讀者最好先行作爸然後與下 週本欄答案比較始能收複習之效
A.直線運動與牛頓運動定律 填-
題
人在图所示為一物体+
之速度為時間
時其瞬時不 度為
10秒
在時間為5秒 時共瞬時
友菇
速度(呎) 3
20
12.
時間(秒)
在時間為15秒,莫瞬時加速度為 在首10秒時間内此物体所移動之距離為 一汽車作等加速度運動在20秒時間內,其速 度從22呎秒增至88呎秒则其平均速度為 莫加速度為 在此20秒時間內此汽車所
三路程
·吠路程内芙 3.一火車作等減速度運動在500
速度從 /秒減至15 秒則其減速度為 又再經 路程萏:吠火車將完全静止 ;一小石自由下落6秒着地則在最後之秒内
此小石所经之路程為
一飛機在3600呎高空作水平飛行,其速度苗 120哩/時,抛下一炸弹則此弹着地之時間為 處與落弹之處水平距離為,
着弹之道
6一汽球以.5米/秒之等速度锘直上升,從汽球 下一物体,8秒着地则验芹開始下落時此
汽球之高度為
7.右图所示, W=100磅重
到此系統
:200磅重 加速度為
絶上之張力為
8.一物体從30°之斜面滑下物体舆斜面間之滑 動摩擦係數為0.20,則此物体之加速度為 若此物体質量為100克則作用在其上之摩
9. A,B两球質量分别为100 -
及200克A球 之速度為20秒B球之速度為50米/秒,在同 平面上作相向之踫撞着踫撞後恰能合為 体,則踫撞後之速度為
10.重500磅之大砲發射-2磅主之砲弹弹 之出口速度為1,600呎/秒則大砲之反弹速度 若反弹力為400 磅重則大砲静 止時所需之時間為
August, 1648, and again at Novara in March, 1849. Without the support of the Austrian army and the good command of Windischgratz, it is doubtful whether the Tevolutionary movements in Prague and Vienna could checked so easily; and without the support of Russian troops, Windischgratz certainly had a longer and harder battle to fight in Hungary. The success of the Habsburg House during the revolutionary crisis of 1848-1849 was therefore, due partly to the ability of the Austrian Emperor to exploit the weaknesses of the national and liberal movements in Austria, but partly to the loyalty and military strength of the Austrian army as well as the military help from Russia.
QUESTIONS NEXT WEEK:
1. In what ways did Cavour's diplomaoy help bring
about Italian unity?
Explain
how Napoleon III had lost support at home and abroad by 1870.