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1969 DAY
歷史科
HISTORY (11)
What were the causes and results of the
Japanese har?
One of the most important results of the Sino- Japanese War (1894-95) was the rise of Japan from the status of an Eastern feudal natin to that of a world power. Japan had demonstrated so successfully her military might that from 1895 onwards she was able to deal with the Western Powers on an equal footing. In the summer of 1900, when the armies of the eight nations were marching towards Peking to meet the challenge of the Boxer Uprising, Japanese. soldiers were seen among them. Japan had also a share in the indemnity paid by China to the eight nations. In the years which followed we witnessed that Japan was playing a greater part in the affairs in East. Asia while most of the Powers from Europe were entangled with affairs in the Continent. he saw at the same time that Japan was strengthening her position in Korea and Manchuria. Since hussia hac also a keen interest on these two places, war finally broke out between hussia and Japan."
Russia and Japan was not in friendly terms lon before the actual outbreak of war. Enmity between.
them was present in 1861, when Russia acquired thr
Maritime Provinces and when she tried to seize the island of Tsushima from Japan. In 1875, Japar accepted the Russian offer of the Kurile Islands in exchange for Sakhalin. On the part of Japan this was a grudge which added to the hostility between the two countries. In 1891, Russia began the building of the Trans-Siberian Kallway, when the news of this reached Japan, much anxiety was caused. Many Japanese were shrewd enough to recognise the significance of the railway. Japan began to realiz that Russia was not only a formidable foe but alsc. an obstacle on her road of expansion towards the northern part of East Asia, Russia must be ousted if she was to assume leadership in the East Asian scene,
Korea was declared independent as a consequend to the Sino-Japanese ar. In other words, Japan able to have a free hand in Korea. The Liaotung
Peninsula was also under the control of Japan. However, Russia refused to recognize the independence of Korea. Thus, she often intervened in Korean affairs. Russo-Japanese relation was furthermore embittered. To make things worse, mussia, with her. associates, France and Germany, forced Japan to give back the Liaotung Peninsula to China in return for an additional indemnity. Being confronted by three of the most powerful nations, Japan could do nothing but to give in, in 1898, China leased Fort Arthur and Derien to Russia, Thia had seriously hurt the pride, of Japan. The likelihood of an outbreak of war with russia, and possibly with France and Germany, was increasing. The great pride of the Japanese, and their strong national spirit had already been shown in their attempt to get equal treatments from the Western nations. Japan was therefore waiting for an opportunity to revenge on Russia, Events which occurred in the early 20th century brought Russia and Japan closer to war. In 1900, when anti-foreign feeling in Chin were showing its force, Russian troops moved in nd occupied Manchuria, Japan demanded the withdrawal of Russian Troops from Manchuria in 1901, but asia took no notice of it.
Japan entered into an alliance with Britain 4 1902 as a repercussion of the Sino-Japanese War and also a result of the Anglo-Russian rivalry in the eastern part of the world. By this alliance, the two countries were obliged to remain neutral if either one of them was attacked by Russia. In cas a third ration joined in, Britain and Japan would give a hand to each other. This alliance was to has tremendous importance as it gave confidence to Japan that Britain, then the world's greatest naval power, would not intervene when Japan opened fire at Russia.
The problem arising over Manchuria gave Japan a pretext to go to war with Russia. In 1902, Russia promised to withdraw her troops from Manchuria in three stages. However, Russia fulfilled her promise only to the first stage, when Japan asked kus sia to define the status of Manchuria, an, indefinite reply was given. Thus in 1904, Japan attacked the.. Russian fleet at Port Arthur without any formal declaration of war, Port Arthur was then beseiged by Japanese troops. But Port Arthur did not fall until early 1905. With a view to relieve the fortress, the Russian Baltic Fleet was sent from the Mediterranean Britain abode by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 and blocked the Suez Canal to the Russian fleet, Ag a result, the Japanese had ample time to prepare for the challenge of the Baltic Fleet. Actually wneu the Russian fleet arrived at the Straits of norea, the Japanese fleet was waiting for it. At a na va 1 battle off the island of Isushima, the kussian fleet was defeated.
Both sides now wanted peace. But it was the Japanese who took the initiative. Japan requested President Roosevelt of the United States to serve med dator. Roosevelt accepted and on June 8, 1905, requested Russia and Japan to meet with him to discuss peace, both accepted, and on August 10 negotiations began at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, which resulted in a settlement on September 5,
Japan gained no indemnity from Russia. Nevertheless she secured title to South Sakhalin, which she renamed Karafuto, and won Russian recognition of her position in Korea. With the approval or China Japan also secured the Russia leasehold in the Idaotung Feninsula, which inclvied Port Arthur anu Dairen, together with the Chinese Eastern kailway and the various economic rights held by Russia in connection with the railroad.
The war had tremendous, importance both to Japan and Russia. All over the Far East, Japan was respected and in some areas she became the natural leader. This triumph over one of the recognized powers did not only add to Japan's prestige but also bring her territorial gains, Japan was now an indisputed power. To Hussia herself, the defeat - added to the Russians hatred of the Czerdom, §.
Reforms soon followed. So far as China was concerned i
the war was fought on Chinese soil and Chinese cfyllfans suffered a great deal. The demand for change was therefore quickened,...
Why did attempt to unify Italy before 1860 fall?
The peninsula of Italy was never erased from the map though at different times it was under the rule of Spaniards, French, Austrians or Germans. It was due to the fact that, the population was Italian. This racial link was furthermore tightened by th common Language and a common religion. The glory and the laurels brought by the Roman Empire were always remembered. In other words, a sense of nationalism was never absent. In the time of Napoleon, Italy was under the influence of French ideas. National.
feeling in this period was characterised by a hatred of foreign rule. At Vienna, the old orders were restored and the hope for a unified Italy came to nothing. In the next several decades, Italy was under five political divisions. The kingdom of tw Sicilies was under the control of the Spanish Bourbon; the Papal States were under the Pope; Parma, Modena and Tuscany were ruled by Hapsburg princes, Lombardy and Venetia were directly incorporated into the Austrian Empire; and Piedmont and Sardinia were administered by
Italians: The administration existed in the Kingdo of Two Sicilies and the Papal States was corrupt and incompetent. The governments in the three Central Duchies, Parma, Modena and Tuscany, though autocratic in nature, were bettar and more efficient than those of the first two political divisions. However, they received little support from the Italians because the rulers were Austrians. Lombardy and Venetia had to experience the repressive measures of Prince Metternich and
political activities were not allowed. An Italian king, Victor Emmanuel I, was restored in riedmont and Sardinia, It was on this political division that the Italians centred their hope for a unified Italy.
The Italian patriots in the 19th century faced many problems. They had to establish a single constitutional government in a land of many petty states, in all of which was absolute government. Italian rulers would naturally oppose any movement that would involve a surrender of their powers. And even if they succeeded in this aim, there was still the power of Austria and the power of the Pope to reckon with, Austria was immensely strong, and controlled many states either directly or indirectly. The Pope had behind him the support of powerful Catholic Austria, and any attempt to undermine his authority would be greeted with antagonism by all the Catholics in Europe.
In face of such seemingly insurmountable obstacles, the Italian patriots could only resort to underground activities such as the Carboneri. Inis society began in Naples, but soon spread throughout all of Italy. It was not well organized, and was not up to the task of achieving Italian unity and independence. cut the society fostered the revolutionary spirit among the common men, In 1820, the Carboniri organized revolts in Naples an Fiedmont In both states they were for a time t successful, and constitutions were granted, but us 1621, Austrian troops intervened on behalf of the monarchy, and any rights granted during the brief period of revolution were soon withdrawn, In 1830 during the wave of revolutions that swept Europe,
there were considerable uprisings in Italy. The rulers of Parma and Modena were expelled, and the Papal States broke out into rebellion. The Pope promptly appealed to Austria for help, and the rebellion was crushed. The Italians for a time.. hoped for French support, but Louis Philippe wa unwilling to risk his new crown in a contest with Austria.
In had become clear to the Italians by this time that unconcerted efforts by the Carbonari to foment sporadic rebellions would fail to unite Italy. Austria was too strong, and her intervention in 1821 and 1830 had crushed their efforts..
Something else was needed a more nationa 1 movement and sounder leadership. The former was supplied by Mazzini who inspired in his fellow countrymen a passionate longing to be united. He founded a new society Young Italy, whose great ain was the expulsion of Austrians from the Peninsula. This would be followed by the collapse of governments supported by Austria, and clear the way; for the establishment of a republic, Another writer, Gioberti, advocated the expulsion of the foreigners and the federation of the existing states to Piedmont Sardinia by virtue of its being the only state with a native Italian ruler. Thus between the years 1830 and 1848, the different views of different people kept Italy divided.
But hope for Italian unity was revived in 1846] when Fius IX became the new Pope Pius was believed to have liberal sympathies and his first acts as Pope certainly seemed to prove him so. He releastu;
political prisoners in his states, modified the censorship of the press and introduced several reforms riis examle was followed by other Italian
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states, in Piedmont, censorship of the press was abolished and a constitution promulgated, and in Naples, Ferdinand II was forced to grant a constitution. The hopes of the Italians rose to dizzying heights, and liberals looked forward to a great union of Italy under the Pope.
In 1848, the Austrian Empire was embroiled in revolutions and Italians felt the time had arrived to strike, while Austria was weakened. In sicily, Ferdinand II's garrison was expelled. Charles Albert of Piedmont-Gardinai declared war on Austria and promptly invaded Lombardy to liberate the Lombards * Venice also rose and expelled the Austrians. From Naples, the new government sent a force to assist Charles Alert, but Pius IX disappointed the Italians, when he denounced the war and refused to help. This was quite understandable, as a Pope would hesitate to fight against a major Catholic power like Austria, In 1849, after the murder of the Pope's minister Rossi, a republic was declared, and Mazzini hurried to home to take charge of the Roman republic. But the Pope appealed to the European powers for help, and Napoleon III of France sent an army to suppress the Republic and re-instate the Pope. Uther states were not faring well either. Charles Albert was defeated by the Austrian forces at Cuatozza and Novara, and the Austrians recovered Lombardy. In Sicily, King Ferdinand had taken advantage of the chaos caused by inexperienced Liberal Ministers and had recovered his authority. By August 1849, even Venice had succumbed under the continuous “ bonhardment of the Austrian forces. The triumph of despotidn was complete - Naples, Sicily, nome Venice, Lombardy had all rebelled and failed. Italian unity had not been achieved in 1848.
ne struggles for Italian unity failed because of lack of agreement among the leaders, Mazzini proposed a republic of Italy which did not appeal to all the Italians. Gioberti's suggestion of a Italian federation under the Pope was open to objection because the Pope's government was among when there seemed to be a capable Fope in Pius IX, yet he was credited with more than his share of Liberal sympathies. He was not ready to go further than the first few changes he had made, and when his people demanded more, he drew back in terror. It was true that in 1848, Austria was weakened by internal revolution, but she recovered within the year, and her authority was entrenched in bouble firmness, French intervention in Rome also crushed the hopes of the liberals Weither Kazzini nor Charles Albert were great military leader, although each had contributed a great share. In later years, the task of unifying Italy fell into the hands of Cavour the statesmab and Garibaldi the soldier,
the worse in Italy. And even
Questions for next week:
1. khat parts did Cavour and Garibaldi play in the
Unification of Italy?
2. What attempts were made by the Ching Dynasty to
arry out reforms in China between 1905-19217.
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